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boundary="----=_NextPart_001_006C_01C77865.FBD1F720" ------=_NextPart_001_006C_01C77865.FBD1F720 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit Content-Location: http://www.unicorne.org/orthodoxy/liens/principal.htm Links for Orthodox Studies ------=_NextPart_001_006C_01C77865.FBD1F720 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.unicorne.org/orthodoxy/liens/oldbelievers.htm Christology

Ukrainian Orthodoxy
Table of=20 Contents

Old Believers
return to link Index

O= ld=20 Believers in Pittsburgh, P.A.

Torment= s of Old=20 Belifevers

Monastery
Adorned with a = martyr's=20 crown

A New Terror for an Old Faith

Old Believers End Isolation

Old = Believers of Bila=20 Krinitsa 

Russia's=20 Religious Persecutions

Split=20 in the russian Orthodox Church

Paul=20 G. Wigowsky
This=20 is the best site on the Web concerning the Old Believers. Read = Freedom For An=20 Old Believer online.

CNEWA.ORG
A=20 very good history on the Old Believers with many good Orthodox=20 links.

About=20 the "semeiskie"

Reuters News=20 Agency

Lake=20 Baikal
History of the Old Believers in the Lake Baikal = region of=20 Russia.

A=20 Brief History
See=20 their museum and a list of holidays

In=20 Southern Sakhalin Island under Japanese Rule 
Read=20 a novel about old=20 believers=20 by Paul John Wigowsky.

History=20 of Karellia
This=20 is=20 a region in NW Russia and  = part of=20 Finland

Russia=20 Intercessory Prayer Network 
A=20 good site for the latest updates on news about Old Believers; follow through with links and = maps

A=20 Brief History of Old Believers 
A=20 brief history of Old Believers; follow through with flow chart on = Eastern=20 Orthodoxy and overview of world religions.

Costumes 
An=20 interesting exhibit of dresses worn by the women of the Old Believers; = exhibit=20 is from Fairbanks, Alaska.

Pomorie 
Pomorie-=20 a region around Archangel; Old Russian spiritual traditions are saved in = form of=20 books, icons, pictures and manuscripts; this extensive artistic heritage = of the=20 Old Russian Believers is also maintained through a site such as=20 this.

Old = Believers 
return to link Index

Table of Contents
Ukrainian=20 Orthodoxy

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Collection of Old Believer History and = Tradition


Compiled by Paul J. Wigowsky

=20

COLLECTION

OF

OLD BELIEVER'S HISTORY

AND

TRADITION

----

Compiled

By

Paul J. Wigowsky

Bilingual Teacher

91 Elementary School

Hubbard, Oregon

----

January 1978

1. Old=20 Believer History
2. Origins=20 and History of Oregonian Staroveri
3. Old=20 Believers in Brazil
4. Life=20 in America
5. Religious=20 Activities and Views
6. The=20 Wedding
7. The=20 Funeral
8. The=20 Spirit World
9. Traditional=20 Material Culture
10. The=20 Old Believers and Public Education
11. Contact=20 with the Law"
12. "The=20 Old Believers and the World of Antichrist"
13. Preface=20 to Robert Crummey's Book
14. Sources
15.=20 Russian=20 Proverbs
16. List=20 of Great Holy Days
17. Origins=20 and Migrations of Russian Old Believers
18. Clothing

OLD BELIEVER HISTORY

In order to fully understand the nature of Staroveri (Old Believer) = society=20 and the reasons behind the Oregon group's migrations, it is necessary to = become=20 acquainted with their basic history. Although Russia dates its = conversion to=20 Christianity from the year 988 A.D., the Orthodoxy did not begin to = establish=20 itself as a church in its own right until a few centuries had passed. Up = until=20 about 1440, Russia received much of the impetus for its faith and the = operation=20 of its church from the Byzantine Orthodoxy in Constantinople. In 1443 = the Tsar=20 declared the Russian metropolitanate independent of the Byzantines, and = shortly=20 thereafter a long era of reform among the clergy was initiated. Several = councils=20 were held to set matters straight among the clergy and laity, the most=20 influential of these being the Stoglav (One hundred Chapters) of 1551, = in which=20 some 100 chapters of reformation were laid down with the provision that=20 disobedience would result in transgressors being forever accursed. By = 1589, the=20 patriarch in Constaninople acknowledged the fact of Russian separation = by=20 himself declaring the Russian patriarch as separate and the See for that = patriarch as being located in Moscow.=20

Despite these efforts and the recognition of the Russians as a third = center=20 of Christianity, by the beginning of the seventeeth century there was = still a=20 widely felt problem with the clergy. (Moscow as the third Rome was a = popular=20 theory at the time.) In the reign of Patriarch Joseph (1642-1652) there = arose a=20 reformist group of clergy whose aims included the restoration of the = purity of=20 the service books and stricter observance of various matters of = spiritual=20 discipline among the clergy generally. This movement was headed by the = priest=20 and confessor to the Tsar Stephan Vonifatiev, and the Archbishop of = Novgorod=20 Nikon. Even though the Russian metropolitanate had nominally been = independent of=20 the Byzantines for two centuries, many of the clergy had been educated = in=20 Greece, and Nikon was one of these. One of the splits which developed = among the=20 reformists concerned the extent to which the older Greek customs and = rites=20 should be adhered to in the new reforms.=20

Upon the death of Patriarch Joseph in 1652, Vonifatiev was lawfully = elected=20 Patriarch, but refused the position. The Tsar Alexei then put Nikon in = his=20 place, contrary to the Church Canons, which forbade the Tsar to have = such=20 influence over the appointment. Apparently no one actively contested the = appointment and Nikon commenced his reign with several reformatory = measures. In=20 1653, he sent a memorandum to the churches in the land which instructed = them in=20 various revisions of the services and the books. These reforms met with=20 opposition from many of the clergy. Among the major points which were = contested=20 were: (1) how many fingers would be used to make the sign of the cross; = (2) the=20 spelling of Jesus' name; (3) whether "Alleluia" should be sung two or = three=20 times; (4) the retention of certain words and phrases in the Creed; (5) = the=20 number of hosts to be used in the liturgy; and (6) whether the priests = should=20 walk around the altar with or against the passage of the sun. These = matters of=20 ritual, seemingly unimportant in themselves, nevertheless were the = embodiment of=20 certain theological precepts and ideological alliances, and hence = stirred=20 considerable controversy upon their arrival. For example, the = conservatives=20 maintained that the sign of the cross with two fingers rather than three = (the=20 latter being the proposed reform) signified the dual nature of Christ, = with the=20 first finger representing the divine nature and the bent second being a = symbol=20 of Christ's descent to Earth for the salvation of humankind. They cited = many old=20 icons to support their position on this matter, in which some of the = saints and=20 Christ could be seen using the two-fingered sign. The three-fingered = sign, on=20 the other hand, was intended as an acknowledgment of the Trinity. But = this was=20 considered by the conservative dissenters to represent Greek heresy. To = make=20 matters worse, many of the clergy felt that strict observance of the = most minute=20 details of the dogmas and disciplines of the church were necessary to = salvation.=20 This was a direct result of the reformatory efforts of the group in = Moscow.=20

Even so, the disputes might have been settled in the course of a few=20 councils, had not Nikon pressed his hand too early and forcefully. He = had his=20 opponents flogged, exiled and even burned at the stake. Among the exiles = was the=20 arch-priest Avvakum, who had been one of the more prominent among the = younger=20 members of the reformatory circle in pre-Nikonian days and had = spearheaded the=20 conservative opposition to Nikon's edicts. He was eventually burned at = the stake=20 in 1682 and until then continued to serve as a spiritual leader for many = of the=20 dissenters. The result of these measures was such a storm of protest, = that Nikon=20 was himself forced to resign his office by 1658.=20

However, his compatriots continued to wield official power, and the=20 persecutions went on in his absence. The Tsar was on the side of the = would-be=20 reformers and began to openly wage campaigns against the conservatives. = After=20 the Council of 1666, in which the Stoglav of 1551 was declared a forgery = and=20 heretical, the Solovetski Monks of the White Sea formed a bastion = against the=20 new tide of reform, and were promptly excommunicated and eventually = replaced=20 with monks from Moscow.=20

Because of actions like the above, some of the dissenters believed = that the=20 age of the Anti-Christ had come and that the end of the world was near. = In the=20 years 1666-1668 numerous fields throughout Western Russia were neglected = while=20 the faithful adorned themselves in burial clothes and awaited the end of = the=20 world in their cemeteries at night, singing hymns and sitting in wooden = coffins.=20 Others set buildings afire where they waited inside to be cleansed and = to perish=20 in the flames so that they might join Christ before the Judgment Day. = Between=20 these and the others who were burned to death by persecutors, it has = been=20 estimated that more than 20,000 Old Believers died between 1672 and 1691 = alone.=20

Partly because most of the prominent conservative clergy perished = early in=20 the movement, and partly because there were not many others who were = courageous=20 enough to risk stepping into their places, the conservatives began to = run out of=20 higher-level clergy, particularly bishops. This posed a problem because = without=20 bishops, there could be no ordained priesthood. Without priests, most of = the=20 sacraments could not be administered and believers were faced with the = prospect=20 of not being able to marry or receive communion. There were two kinds of = solutions to this problem. One was to accept fugitive priests from the = ranks of=20 the Nikonians, and groups which did this became known as the = "Beglopopovtsy."=20 Some of these groups in various regions even eventually obtained bishops = of=20 their own in the nineteenth century. The other solution was to reject = the notion=20 of a true priesthood and to form the community around a lay-priest. = Perhaps the=20 most famous example of such a community was the monastic order at Lake = Vyg,=20 headed by the Denisov Brothers. The Denisovs were responsible for = several=20 influential writings on the dissenting movement, and their community = became an=20 example for many others throughout Western Russia. These groups became = known as=20 the "Bezpopovtsy" (priestless).=20

From those days on to the Revolution of 1917, the Old Believer sects = suffered=20 varying amounts of persecution at the hands of henchmen either of the = Orthodoxy=20 or various Tsars. Under Catherine II, Paul and Alexander I, they were = tolerated=20 and thrived in some areas, but under Peter the Great and Nicholas I, = they often=20 had to flee to outer regions of Russia or to other countries to avoid = death or=20 imprisonment. During the last half of the nineteenth century, the = position of=20 the Orthodox Church softened with regard to the Old Believer question, = and the=20 1909 Council made the first official conciliations by restoring a few of = the=20 decanonized saints which were among the Old Believer favorites and by = 1929 the=20 old anathemas had been officially removed. However, another potent=20 socio-political force came in the Revolution of 1919 and, later, in = Stalin's=20 measures against religious adherents of all stripes.=20

ORIGINS AND HISTORY OF OREGONIAN = STAROVERI

The Staroveri (Old Believers) were originally separated into three = groups:=20 (1) one group migrating to an area around Kuban, Turkey; (2) another = group=20 migrating to an area in Manchuria near Harbin; and (3) the third group = migrating=20 to an area near Kulja and Altai in the Sinkiang Province. Most of the = discussion=20 will be centered around the two groups scattered about in communities in = China:=20 the Harbintsi (Harbin people) and the Sinziantsi (Sinkiang people).=20

Most of the Harbintsi did not meet each other until they came across = the=20 border into China during the Twenties and Thirties. Many of them hailed=20 originally from the vicinity of Moscow and Kiev, their families having = moved out=20 to the east because of the persecutions under Nicholas I (1825-1855). = They=20 settled in the areas of Primorsk, Khabarovsk, Sakhalin and even northern = Japan.=20 Most of them lived in small village communities and either farmed or = operated=20 small-scale industries such as cloth manufacture or flour mills. Some of = them=20 had become fairly well-to-do landholders by the time of the Revolution. = A few=20 male interviewees recall seving in the Tsarist army during the first = World War.=20

It was several years after the dawning of the Revolution before the=20 consequences could be felt as far as the souther reaches of Siberia. = Many of the=20 landholders were victimized by the seizures of property which resulted = from=20 takeovers of vast villages by the Red Army during the last years of = fighting the=20 White Army remnants which were at that time retreating into China, or = from=20 peasant-inspired uprisings in the villages themselves.=20

Most of the Sinziantsi came originally from the Russian-Polish border = area=20 and migrated to the Siberian regions because of persecutions in the = mid-1700's.=20 They settled in the areas of Semipalatinsk, Kamchatka in Kazahstan, and=20 Tashkent. When they decided to move south to escape the Revolution and = later=20 Stalinization of the regions, the Sinkiang Province was the closest = point of=20 entry. Small groups came, mostly by foot, over the Altai Mountains. Some = of them=20 settled near Altai itself (a bitterly cold area), or eventually moved = further=20 south to form villages near Kuldja and Urumchi (in northwestern China, = west of=20 Mongolia). They gradually clustered in the various river valleys of the = region,=20 where they found the soil to be the most fertile. The city of Kuldja was = another=20 center of expatriate Russian population during this time, as many = soldiers and=20 religiously inclined Russians followed the passes down into the Sinkiang = Province during the Twenties and Thirties.=20

For a decade or more, particularly throughout the Thirties, the = Harbintsi and=20 Sinziantsi lived relatively peaceful lives. They farmed primarily on a=20 subsistance basis, and sold wheat and honey to the local urban centers = or to=20 Chinese villages in the area. They also hunted various animals whose = skins or=20 other parts were prized by locals for medicinal or other purposes. The = Harbintsi=20 in particular became famous, to some extent, for their ability to hunt = and=20 capture live tigers to supply zoos in Harbin and nearby cities. Other = commonly=20 hunted animals included boar, bear, elk, squirrel and various birds.=20

Their primary contacts with other people during this time came = through=20 trading or chance meetings with nomads in the area. Some Sinziantsi = communities=20 struck up friendly relations with nomadic Mongol tribes which toured = their=20 regions, and in one case a tribe camped the winter in the Old Believer = village=20 in trade for their animal skins and some meat. They would also hire out = to Old=20 Believers as farm workers for planting in the early spring, before = starting off=20 on their migrations for the summer. The Harbintsi did not have friendly = nomads,=20 but did have occasion to meet with the notorious bandit gangs which = roved=20 northern China at that time. These gangs, often initially formed by = village=20 peasants to protect them against the gnetry of late feudal China, would = resort=20 frequently to sacking villages for supplies and women.=20

However, the Old Believers could hardly have chosen a worse spot to = which to=20 migrate in their attempt to escape the influences of Soviet rule. During = the=20 Thirties and Forties, both the Harbin and Sinkiang regions became the = primary=20 areas of Soviet dominance in their dealings with the fledgling Chinese=20 governments of the period. Additionally, the Japanese overran the = Manchurian=20 region and set up their own government there. These events and their=20 consequences caused the Old Believers plenty of problems.=20

Soviet interests in both the north China and Sinkiang regions were = primarily=20 economic. Historical accounts point to the Soviet use of Port Arthur and = Darien=20 as warm-water ports for the east, their interests in the construction of = railroads throughout the region, and their mining and refining = activities in the=20 northern area of the Sinkiang Province. In Sinkiang, the Soviets = established=20 consulates there by 1924, and when the warlord of the area was = assassinated in=20 1928, the Soviets were quick to move in on his successor to establish a = puppet=20 government there during the Thirties. Harbin served as the center of = Soviet=20 diplomatic activities during the Thirties as well, with a consulate and = a=20 special Russian muncipality established there up to the time of the = Japanese=20 take-over. Up to this point, however, Soviet activities did not often = spread to=20 the rural areas and the Old Believers seem to have been unaffected by = their=20 presence in the cities. The Twenties and Thirties were mostly = characterized as a=20 very peaceful, "free" era, during which the villagers of both the Harbin = and=20 Sinkiang groups were left alone for the most part and simply worked = whatever=20 piece of land in the area took their fancy. They traveled freely and = hunted=20 where they chose. Many of them married people in other villages and = moved there.=20 Most of them had little cause or opportunity to visit nearby towns = unless they=20 were male and wished to trade or sell. They made most of their own = clothing and=20 other implements, with the exception of metal objects.=20

For the Harbins, the first problems arose with the takeover of the = Manchurian=20 region by the Japanese, who in 1932 established the notorious = "Manchukuo"=20 regime. One of the primary early tasks the new government undertook was = the=20 extension of the railroad system, and workers from various provinces = were=20 expropriated for this purpose. Even the Old Believers worked for the = Japanese on=20 the railways. Usually, they were returned to their families without = incident=20 when the work in that area was completed, but stories were told of = individuals=20 being transferred to other projects and never being seen again. There = were also=20 some deaths and injuries from accidents. The work was not done = voluntarily; the=20 individuals involved were rounded up and marched off by Japanese = soldiers for=20 forced labor. The Japanese never reached Sinkiang, so the people there = were=20 largely unaffected by the invasion and the events leading up to World = War II.=20

When the Soviets began to actively aid the Chinese in fighting the = Japanese,=20 the Old Believers found themselves affected in several ways. First, = their=20 villages were occasionally raided by Soviet troops passing through the = area. In=20 Sinkiang, this occurred because some of the settlements were apparently = in the=20 path of a major Soviet overland route for supplying the soldiers at the = front.=20 In Harbin, where much of the fighting was taking place, the villagers = were=20 frequently bystanders on the front itself. Raids on villages usually = were for=20 supplies only. Troops would take the food stores and animals, leaving = the=20 villagers with whatever they could get out of the ground between the = raid and=20 that winter. Occasionally, however, all the men over sixteen or = seventeen would=20 be taken and marched off either to become soldiers or to work on = repairing and=20 extending the railway system, which was also crucial for maintaining the = supplies for troops. Even those whose villages were not hit by the = Soviets=20 encountered difficulties when they ventured near the cities of Harbin or = Mutankiang for supplies, only to find the cities in shambles because of = the war.=20

Sinkiang also had a few battles during the late Thirties and early = Forties,=20 but these came mostly from Mongol and Moslem uprisings, and were = centered around=20 Urumchi. Thus, only an occasional Old Believer had anything to do with = such=20 conflicts. A few of them, however, served in the area's White Army for = short=20 periods of time.=20

As the war progressed, some of the Harbintsi attempted to move = further south=20 in the Manchurian region, hoping thereby to escape Soviet raids and the = ravages=20 of the conflict itself. As they did so, however, they found themselves = in the=20 midst of the so-called "liberated areas" and faced a different problem = in the=20 form of the Draft Agrarian Law of 1947 and its consequences. This law = was the=20 center of a political offensive on the part of the Chinese = revolutionaries in=20 their efforts to attain full control over China, and is principal = purpose was=20 the abolition of the feudal landholding system. Typically, the law was = enforced=20 or implemented through the incitement of peasant uprisings against the = local=20 landlords and gentry by revolutionary cadres. These uprisings, once they = got=20 going in earnest, were often quite violent and many beatings and murders = took=20 place in the name of land reform. Thus, when the movement to expropriate = property gained momentum in their area, various Old Believer villages = came under=20 attack for the possession of "more than their share" of property. This = was=20 somewhat ironic, because the Old Believers did not participate at all in = the=20 Chinese landlord system. In fact, their Mir system of distributing land = among=20 themselves in their own villages closely approximated the Draft Law = ideal of=20 equality in both quantity and quality of land. Nevertheless, the attacks = between=20 1947-1951 in both areas came without warning, were violent, and left the = Old=20 Believers without their property.=20

Another event at the end of World War II which affected the Old = Believers was=20 the Soviet post-war cleanups in both Manchuria and Sinkiang. In = Manchuria, this=20 took the form of a move to dismantle the captured Japanese industrial = centers=20 and ship the parts back to the Soviet Union to aid Soviet rebuilding = efforts in=20 their own country. The Soviets also lacked manpower during this time, = and most=20 of expatriate Russians in the urban centers in northern China were = either=20 persuaded or coerced to join the troops and their technicians in the = march back=20 to the homeland. Some Old Believer villages were again raided during = this time,=20 both in the Harbin and Kuldja regions. This was the time when the = Soviets came=20 in trucks with films and speeches about how wonderful life was in the = Soviet=20 Union and promises that they would be allowed to worship as they wished = when the=20 returned. People who continued to the homeland went there to work on a=20 collective farm and to see their icons and prayer books destroyed.=20

Those that stayed in China began to plan their escape from China. = They did=20 not want to return to Russia and conditions in China were becoming = intolerable=20 for them. Some of them had heard of the United States and Canada and = wished to=20 go there. Getting the documents necessary for that kind of travel proved = difficult, however, because not only were most of the Staroveri = illiterate, but=20 Moscow and Vladivostok held some of those documents and were loathe to = give them=20 up for the purpose of aiding the escape of religious exiles from the = Soviet=20 Union. The consulates in Harbin and Kuldja were not helpful either. In = fact,=20 some Old Believers claim that they or acquaintances of theirs were = jailed for=20 their attempted contacts with the British Consulate in Hong Kong, on = orders from=20 the local Russian consulates in Harbin or Kuldja.=20

In the period 1957-58 the local officials and the people in Hong Kong = suddenly relented and they found themselves with permission to travel to = Hong=20 Kong, thence to prepare for departure to another country. The only event = which=20 seems to hold any possibility of explaining this change in policy is the = visit=20 of Khrushchev to Peking in the mid-50's which coincided with a shake-up = in the=20 Soviet diplomatic corps assigned to China. The consulates at both Kuldja = and=20 Harbin were replaced in 1954, with the Harbin consulate being replaced = again in=20 1957.=20

In any event, the remaining Old Believers from Manchuria and Sinkiang = traveled to Hong Kong around 1958-59. Some of them had escaped in the = mid-50's,=20 usually making their way by hired truck, foot or horseback to the = nearest train=20 station where they could safely board a train to either Shanghai or Hong = Kong.=20 Most of them, however, even when they escaped illegally, wound up in = Hong Kong=20 about the same time their legitimate brethren did, in 1958-59.=20

There, the Old Believers from Manchuria and Sinkiang met for the = first time.=20 The Red Cross and the United World Council of Churches assisted both = groups=20 while they were in Hong Kong, putting them up in hotels and arranging = for their=20 passage to a new country. Most of them spent months in the city while = the=20 consulates debated their fates. They were enjoined not to work while = they were=20 there, but some of them found short-term jobs anyway. The majority of = them had=20 been forced to give up all they owned in the way of valuables in order = to make=20 the trip, and they were understandably insecure without some money or = belongings=20 of their own, despite the assurances of the charitable organizations = that their=20 needs would be provided for. In all, out of the uncounted thousands of = Old=20 Believers who apparently at one time populated the rural areas of = northern China=20 and Sinkiang, less than 1,000 made it to Hong Kong. Some of the families = claim=20 to be the only ones from their entire village who made it out of China = without=20 going back to the Soviet Union.=20

In Hong Kong, they were given several choices among the countries to = which=20 they could go: Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and = Uruguay.=20 The largest groups went eventually to Brazil and Australia, with smaller = groups=20 ending up in the other countries. To date, there are still some Old = Believers=20 left in each of those nations.=20

OLD BELIEVERS IN BRAZIL


Our narrative narrows at this point to those Old Believers who went = to=20 Brazil. The number which arrived there seems to have been near 200 or = even more.=20 There were apparently two boatloads of them, one of which went to Brazil = by way=20 of Los Angeles and the other which headed in the opposite direction by = plane,=20 eventually passing through Rome and then taking a boat from Italy. The = group=20 which stopped in Lost Angeles found their arrival heralded by the = American=20 newspaper Novoye Slovo (The New Word), and they were met by some = Molokans who=20 resided at that time in the city. These Molokans were members of another = conservative sect from the days of the Schism of 1653, and this = particular group=20 had immigrated to the United States in the early Twenties. Some of their = relatives had moved to central Oregon and were farming in the Willamette = Valley=20 near Salem and Woodburn. In the course of conversations between the = members of=20 these two groups, the Molokan hosts told their Old Believer guests about = the=20 productive farmland and peaceful countryside their relatives had written = them=20 about in "Voodburn." It was this name that the Old Believers were later = to give=20 their American sponsors when asked in what part of the country they = would like=20 to settle.=20

The majority of the Old Believers arrived in Brazil in 1959-61. They = had been=20 provided with land by the United World Council of Churches, and this=20 organization further promised to provide them with the means and = assistance=20 necessary to get them started in farming their land. The Sinziantsi and=20 Harbintsi requested to be settled on separate pieces of land, despite = their=20 friendly acquaintance during their stay in Hong Kong. This factional = loyalty=20 showed up in family lines as well. Within each of the two groups, small = viallges=20 were formed principally on the basis of family membership or village = alliances=20 as they had existed back in China. Both groups were settled nearby each = other,=20 about eight miles or so from the nearby town of Ponta Grossa, in the = state of=20 Parana. The Harbin group split into three villages, with the Sinziantsi = forming=20 five.=20

Life in Brazil appears to have been difficult from the start. The = soil and=20 climatic conditions were vastly different from anything the Old = Believers had=20 known. They were used to fertile deposits from the river valleys of = China's=20 northlands, a cold winter and temperate summer. This was the kind of = climate=20 they had known in Russia also. In Brazil, the soil was barren and the = climate=20 dry and hot, except for seasonal torrents of rain which washed uselessly = over=20 the land and quickly evaporated in the sun. Several of them told of = first=20 harvests which were total losses, which no food to eat for the coming = rainy=20 season and no seed to plant the next time. They had to borrow money from = the=20 banks in Ponta Grossa for machinery and fertilizers without which they = were told=20 they would not be able to farm there. They began growing rice and = watermelons=20 for cash crops, because they had been informed by the locals that there = were=20 outlets for those products in Ponta Grossa and they grew well in the = soil of=20 that region.=20

Unfortunately, although many of the Old Believers became proficient = farmers=20 under those conditions by the second or third year of their stay there, = two=20 factors prevented all but a few from making a livelihood of their work. = One of=20 these was the depressed state of the local economy and the fact that = there was=20 not enough of an outlet to provide sales for all the rice that the = Russians=20 would produce. Thus, they found that during good harvest years, the = market would=20 quickly become glutted and the prices would fall so drastically that = only a few=20 could make any money at all. One way which some individuals tried to=20 circumnavigate this difficulty was by hoarding as much rice as they = could until=20 the market had unfrozen, and then strategically leaking their supply = onto the=20 market to cash in on the resultant price increases. Other considered = this=20 dishonest, but competed for the purchase of land from indebted brethren = so that=20 they could absorb their losses through multiple or even staggered = harvests. The=20 end result of this system of "free enterprise" under restricted market=20 conditions was a fierce competition between Old Believers which began to = undermine community solidarity and in a few instances caused some = violent=20 feuding among families or village groups.=20

The second factor which intervened between the Old Believers efforts = and the=20 prospects of a decent living was the highly corrupted local system of = government=20 and the tax system in particular. It was common for an Old Believer, = driving his=20 produce to market, to be stopped by a man in the road who posed as a tax = collector. This man would overestimate the amount of produce and charge = taxes=20 accordingly. He would then pocket the money and provide the farmer with = no=20 receipt or document of the "transaction," thus leaving him open for the = next man=20 in the road. Tax collectors also frequented the pubic marketplaces and = streets=20 of Ponta Grossa, so that an individual farmer coming into town for a day = of=20 selling and trading could have taxes charged as many as four or five = times. One=20 protective (aside, perhaps, from learning to swear effectively in = Portuguese)=20 adopted by some of the Old Believers was to take their produce to the = local=20 governor and hve him or a deputy sign a paper indicating that the bearer = had=20 paid his taxes for that load in full. However, this took time and was = not always=20 dependable, since the appropriate officials might not be available at = the time=20 the farmer came to call.=20

Once again, the literate among the Old Believers began appealing for=20 assistance from various nations. It was obvious to them that they could = not make=20 a living for themselves in Brazil. Many of the families were already = heavily=20 indebted to the banks, and a few of them were close to starving. Even = the=20 relatively well-to-do were not secure in their comparative wealth, for a = couple=20 of disastrous crops could bring them down as well.=20

The Tolstoy Foundation in New York found out about the group, and = agreed to=20 sponsor the majority of them in a move to the United States. A few other = Old=20 Believers were sponsored by acquaintances of theirs from days in China = who had=20 already moved to the United States and become citizens. Most of them = began their=20 migration in the mid-60's, from about 1964 to 1969. They moved when they = could=20 afford to pay at least part of their plane fare and still have a small = savings=20 to tide them over in America while they searched for work. Of those who = made the=20 move, most of them came to Oregon, beginning in the early Sixties. A = handful of=20 families went to New York where their sponsors were, but most of these=20 eventually came out to Oregon to join the others. Some remained in = Brazil and=20 are there to this day, but have moved to another location at Mato = Grossa. Some=20 say that all of the remaining Old Believers in Brazil would like to come = here=20 but are too poor to manage it, while others have indicated that some of = them=20 have become well-to-do there and enjoy their lives.=20

While the Tolstoy Foundation was making arrangements with the = Russians in=20 Brazil for their migration to the United States, the plight of another = group in=20 Turkey came to their attention. Through a series of misfortunes, this=20 community's numbers had been reduced to the point that they could no = longer=20 support themselves nor could they provide sufficient marriage partners = within=20 their own group. The Tolstoy Foundation advised them to come to America = and live=20 with the Old Believers who were arriving from Brazil. This community = came all=20 together in 1963, consisting of 60 households with 250 individuals all = told.=20 They were settled at first in New Jersey and for a time were scattered = around=20 that area so that they could not continue their existence as a = community, but=20 after a couple of years, they managed to move out to Oregon, where they = settled=20 on a large plot of land near Gervais, which they had collectively = purchased.=20 This has since become known to the community at large as "Turkish = Village."=20 Although this group was found to be coreligious with the Brazilian Old = Believers=20 in a joint council meeting (sobor) held between the two groups, = relations were=20 slow in building between them for a few years. To this day, there is = some=20 prejudice among the Sinziantsi, Harbintsi and Turtiantsi against one = another,=20 even though by now there has been plenty of intermarriage among the = three=20 groups.=20

The Brazilians never did get the money or the land together to = purchase a=20 large plot on which to establish a village. When the first families = arrived in=20 Oregon, they had large degts to pay the airline companies and banks in = Brazil=20 for past loans. Furthermore, they had to send money back to = less-well-off=20 relatives who wanted to make the trip to America as well. Lack of = proficiency in=20 English and the absence of "marketable" job skills for all but a very = few meant=20 that they had to compete with the local Chicano (Mexican) population for = the=20 farm labor jobs. They did so successfully, but at the cost of any = amiable=20 relations with the Mexicans.=20

LIFE IN AMERICA

As several years passed by and some of the families began to = establish firm=20 financial footing for themselves, another problem drew their attention. = Young=20 people in the community, through a combination of influences from = American=20 schools and society and the restrictiveness of the Staroveri traditions, = were=20 beginning to fall away from the old ways. A few community elders viewed = the=20 situation with sufficient alarm that they began seriously considering = other more=20 isolated locations for their parishes. One of them latched onto the = information=20 that government land was available in the Kenai Peninsula area of = Alaska, where=20 the fishing was reputed to be outstanding. After initial investigations = by four=20 men, five families moved up to a jointly purchased section of land (640 = acres)=20 and began building a community there in the summer of 1968.=20

During the first summer, the families camped in tents on an "oil = pan," which=20 is a bed of gravel about a hundred yards in diameter, originally laid = down in=20 preparation for drilling on the spot. The men began constructing an = access road=20 to their village from the nearby roads leading inland from Anchor Point. = They=20 then began laying out the plan for the village itself, and logged out an = area=20 for it in the spruce forest. From the wood they cut, they built the = first five=20 cabins of the village, put in power lines by the next summer and were = able to=20 spend the first winter there. There was a tent fire, in which one girl = was=20 burned to death and her mother scarred for life. Some of the families = which came=20 later were unable to withstand the cold winters and had to return to = Oregon.=20

However, the majority prevailed and the village continued to grow = each year,=20 with the population stabilizing to some extent in 1974 or so. Most of = the men=20 have found work as commercial fishermen or construction workers, while = the=20 majority of the women work at a cannery in nearby Homer. By the second = year, the=20 homes had running water and electricity. Some of the men constructed = their own=20 fishing boats after working at a Homer marina where they learned the = trade. They=20 set up their own shop in the village by 1972. When the growing season in = the=20 Alaskan summers proved too short for the production of various favorite=20 vegetables, the Old Believers built greenhouses with wood-fueled stoves = in them=20 to extend the season. In 1974-75, through the cooperative efforts of = retired=20 Army Brig. Gen. B.B. Talley, some 59 Old Believers prepared for and = successfully=20 obtained American citizenship. On June 19, 1975, a ceremony for their=20 naturalization took place in the Anchor Point School gymnasium, with = Judge James=20 A.. von der Heydt presiding.=20

Although some of the Russians in Oregon were encouraged by reports of = events=20 in Alaska, they did not want to move there themselves, even though they = wished=20 to find a more isolated spot in which to live and raise their children. = Reasons=20 commonly given among the Oregonians included the harshness of the = climate, the=20 lack of available fishing permits and the inability of the Alaskans to = farm for=20 money because of the long winters. Thus, 45 individuals purchased a = quarter=20 section of land near the Alaskan settlement, but after further = consideration of=20 the matter, gave up the notion of settling there and resold the land.=20

One other colony has been established as of about 1973 in Canada, = near=20 Edmonton, Alberta. This community currently houses some 20 families, = primarily=20 of the Harbintsi, although several Sinziantsi indicated that their = relatives or=20 friends had also purchased land up there and were planning to move in = the near=20 future.=20

RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES AND VIEWS

Religion is clearly central to the Old Believer society and world = view. It=20 permeates virtually every major portion of their social and inner lives. = They=20 base their interpretations of the Word of God on a number of books which = tell=20 them in considerable detail how to live for virtually each day of the = year. An=20 adult Old Believer is above all conscious of the immense number of rules = which=20 must be observed in every waking moment. Some of the more prominent = among these=20 rules will be referred to in conjunction with work, eating and dress. In = order=20 to understand the books, the Old Believer must be able to read Church = Slavonic,=20 the dialect in which the Bible was translated by Cyril and Methodius for = their=20 missionary work in Moravia in the mid-800's. Included in these books are = such=20 comprehensive rule-systems as the Canonical Laws formulated in the Seven = Ecumenical Councils from 325 to 787 in Nicea.=20

Among these laws are those which regulate the observance of the Holy = Days and=20 the four Lents which are to be observed each year. The Old Believers use = the=20 Julian calendar for the reckoning of their dates, so that, for example, = their=20 Christmas and Easter are always out of phase with our own (by thirteen = days).=20 Holy days are usually marked by special services which begin late at = night and=20 continue on through the eary hours of the morning. Ordinarily, there is = an=20 evening service each weekday beginning at 5:00 and and ending at about = 9:00, and=20 then a longer service on Sundays which may run from about 1:00 A.M. = until=20 8:00-10:00 in the morning. Since there are some thirty-eight Holy Days = which may=20 be celebrated thus, the Old Believers spend many days out of the year in = church=20 for at least a few hours each day.=20

Churches in Oregon have often consisted of the elder's home (or that = of a=20 relative) which is large enough to be used for the purpose. Only two of = the six=20 operable church districts in Oregon have church buildings as such. = Apparently,=20 this was also often the case back in Brazil and China. Although the = buildings=20 are typically unadorned on the outside, they are heavily decorated on = the=20 interiors. In addition to embroidered hangings on the walls, there are = various=20 icons, some of which reputedly date as far back as the Seventeenth = Century. Most=20 of them are cast from bronze and then enameled according to strict rules = of=20 iconography, while others are painted in an egg-tempera-based paint on = specially=20 gessoed board. The churches usually have a simple layout, consisting of = a large=20 standing area in the center of the floor for the worshippers, who must = stand=20 through most of the services. At the front is an altar and repository = for the=20 service books and other necessities for the conducting of services. The = altar=20 and the shelves above it which house the icons also are laden with = beeswax=20 candles made by qualified older community members. These are kept = burning=20 throughout the service. Near the front of the room is a stand which can = be moved=20 to the center of the floor when necessary, and which holds the book of = hymns and=20 chants used by the Old Believers.=20

The service itself features four individuals: the nastayatyel, the = ustavnik,=20 the naspevnik and the pomoshnik. The nastayatyel is the elder of the = church=20 districts, which is the primary governmental unit above that of the = family in=20 Old Believer society. There is no higher authority than this position, = although=20 it does not include with it much in the way of power over others' = affairs. The=20 nastayatyel is primarily the presiding head over church services, and he = also=20 has the additional function of an ad hoc canonical lawyer. The ustavnik = is also=20 a law keeper of sorts, as it is his job to keep track of the forms which = the=20 service must take according to the books. The naspevnik is the cantor, = and leads=20 the hymnal singing and chants. The pomoshnik is an assistant to the = elder. In=20 recent years, the nastayatyel has been increasingly called on to = administer=20 punishments and other forms of discipline to miscreant young people. = These=20 punishments usually consist of a public announcement of the individual's = sins to=20 the congregation at the end of the service, whereupon the transgressors = may be=20 compelled to perform several prostrations before the congregation, or = some other=20 act of contrition and penance.=20

There are several aspects of the services which should be = particularly noted.=20 First, the congregation stands during the entire service, except for = certain=20 times when they are to prostrate themselves on the floor. Children are = expected=20 to do this along with the adults, although the very young may be excused = to go=20 to the bathroom or to step outside. Babies are usually laid to rest in a = back=20 room, and mothers may leave periodically to check in on them. The men = stand as a=20 group in front of the women, and they participate much more actively in = the=20 services than do the women.=20

Most of the service consists of readings aloud from appropriate texts = for the=20 hour, with the readings being done by men as appointed during the = service by the=20 nastayatyel. Often, a young man who is just getting the hang of the = Slavonic=20 will suddenly find the finger pointed at him, and with a shove from his = father=20 or an uncle, he is belly-up against a prayer book and has to begin = reading, lest=20 the continuity of the service be broken. Readers who err are usually = quietly=20 prompted or corrected by knowledgeable members of the congregation. The = chanting=20 or hymns of the Staroveri are sung only by the men during the services. = They=20 have their historical and musical roots firmly embedded in the Byzantine = chant=20 of Tenth Century vintage. The pitch is relative rather than absolute, = but the=20 scale consists of 12 notes lying roughly in the tenor register. The = hymns often=20 contain two closely harmonized parts, with intervals consisting mostly = of major=20 and minor thirds and fifths.=20

Church-related ceremonies and sacraments mark various important parts = of the=20 individual's life cycle, in addition to the variety of Holy Days and = fasts. At=20 birth, the primary event is the christening. First, the baby is to be = delivered=20 by an individual who is among the faithful, which makes many Old = Believers=20 understandably resistant to the idea of having their babies delivered in = hospitals. There are several Old Believer midwives who were educated by = older=20 female relatives, and they usually perform this service for the = expectant=20 mothers. Another reason given for the home deliveries is that, in the = event of=20 complications with the birth, the baby can be christened then and there, = for it=20 is believed that an unchristened baby will not see the face of God.=20

If there are no complications, the baby is usually christened within = eight=20 days after its birth. The ceremony is usually performed on a Holy Day or = Sunday,=20 whichever appears within the eight-day limit and is the most convenient. = A name=20 is chosen for the baby from a list of Saints' days, and there is a Saint = for=20 nearly every day of the year. The parents choose the most suitable name = from=20 within the eight-day period. In the baptismal ceremony, the nastayatyel = dips the=20 head of the infant in a large container of water and prays over it, = names it and=20 then hands the baby to a waiting godparent, who then dresses it with the = nastayatyel. The two items of clothing which are crucial in this = instance are=20 the woven belt and a cross on a chain or thong, which is placed around = the=20 baby's neck. The belt is not to come off except for bathing, and the = cross is=20 not to come of at all except perhaps in the event a longer chain is = needed when=20 the individual grows up.=20

The acquisition of godparents is an important event also. Godparents = are=20 enjoined to teach the child right and wrong and to consider themselves=20 responsible for the child on the same level as the child's biological = parents.=20 The godfather in particular is to serve as a father-confessor to the = godchild,=20 and the child is instructed later in life to confess all his sins to the = godfather at least during each Lenten period. Many of the Old Believers = refer to=20 their godparents as "relatives," or even state that they were "related" = to those=20 families containing the godparents of siblings. Further, there is a = marriage=20 taboo which forbids the child to marry a member of the godparents' = families.=20

The day of the Saint for whom the child is named becomes the name-day = of the=20 child, and this is used for the yearly celebration of that individual's = birth,=20 much as the American-European birthday is observed. On the morning of or = the=20 evening before the name-day, the family of the child (or adult) gives = out treats=20 to their friends in honor of the individual. These friends then say a = special=20 prayer for that person along with the rest of their day's prayers. If a = name-day=20 falls on a Sunday or major Holy Day, then the person may take a beeswax = candle=20 to church, and the congregation will say a prayer for her.=20

In the home, every meal and even the preparation of various foods and = other=20 household tasks must be blessed. In a prominent corner of the front room = of each=20 Old Believer home stands a small altar with the family icon sitting in a = small=20 shelter, curtained with an embroidered covering. Whenever a visiting Old = Believer enters the home, he is ordinarily to bow three times from the = waist=20 before the icon (which is usually at about eye-level) and say a prayer = which=20 translates approximately: "O God be merciful to me, a sinner. You, O = Lord who=20 created me, have mercy on me. I have sinned without number, O Lord, have = mercy=20 on me and forgive me, a sinner." The entering person usually does this = before=20 even greeting the individuals whom he has come to visit. This obeisance = is also=20 the first act performed upon entering a church.=20

THE WEDDING

Another momentous occasion is the wedding. Secular elements enter = into this=20 ceremony and its preparations perhaps more than any other, but even it = is=20 heavily marked with ceremony and ritual. In courtship, the man = traditionally=20 takes the initiative. Thus, it is the young man who decides on a woman = he wants=20 to marry. When he has made the decision, he tells his parents and they = come over=20 with him to the prospective bride's house. If all goes well and the = marriage is=20 determined acceptable, then the two sets of parents discuss the = arrangements=20 while the man and woman pass the time in another room, chaperoned = usually by the=20 woman's best friend. The bride is then taken aside by an aunt or older = female=20 relative from both the man's family and her own, and is asked whether = she wants=20 to marry the man. If she says yes, then the announcement is made to the = "man"=20 (the nastayatyel) that the couple intends to be married.=20

The nastayatyel then arrives at the bride's home, and there presides = while=20 the couple kneels before the icon and a lit candle, praying together. = The=20 nastayatyel then asks each of them in turn whether they wish to be = married of=20 their own free will. If either answers no at this point, then the = marriage does=20 not proceed. If they answer yes, then they exchange gifts before the = nastayatyel=20 and both sets of parents. The man traditionally gives either money or, = in=20 earlier years, animals and grain. The woman presents the man with her = favorite=20 belt. They are then officially engaged and a dinner is brought from the = man's=20 parents home to the house of the bride, where the two families eat = together.=20

On the same day after the engagement, preparations are begun for the = wedding=20 ceremony and feast. Because these feasts are meant to be elaborate and = rich,=20 they cannot be held on any of the fast days or during the Lenten = periods. This=20 tends to make the wedding a seasonal phenomenon, with the greatest = number=20 tending to occur just before the seven-week Easter Lent. The groom's = family=20 prepares a variety of foods and makes sure that they have plenty of = "braga" (a=20 home-made Old Believer wine-like drink, usually made from berries). In = the=20 meantime, the bride invites her friends to a small party to make the = "krosota"=20 (wedding cap) which consists of small bows of colorful material, and a = large bow=20 in the back with ribbons which trail to midway between the knee and = ankle. One=20 of the friends is chosen to be a "podruga" (somewhat akin to the = bridesmaid),=20 and this person then assists the bride in various wedding preparations. = These=20 may include the sewing and embroidering of various garments and the = trousseau,=20 if that has not been taken care of in earlier years by the bride = herself.=20

At this point, the "divichnik" begins. This is a period of anywhere = from two=20 days to three weeks, during which there are parties each evening for the = bride=20 at her home. Various friends of the bride and groom who are themselves = still=20 single come to the house and sit around a long table and eat, drink, and = the=20 women sing songs for which the men pay them with money and/or kisses = (mostly the=20 latter). They may carry on this way for long hours, as late as 2:00 in = the=20 morning. When the groom arrives at this sort of gathering, the bride has = to kiss=20 him on the lips, which apparently has caused some embarrassment among = the women=20 since it may be the first time they have ever kissed the men they are to = marry.=20 On the last Friday before the wedding, the end of this party is marked = with a=20 dinner for all present. At the end of each divichnik party, a song is = sung about=20 how the guests will each go home and sleep in other houses now.=20

In the meantime, the groom's family has been making the bridal = outfit, while=20 the bride (or in some cases, the bride's mother) prepares a special = shirt to be=20 worn at the wedding by the groom. On the Saturday before the wedding, at = noon,=20 the bride's close woman friends meet at her house to decorate the bridal = vehicle=20 (in the old days, a horse or wagon, now a car). The bride stays home to = make her=20 last-minute preparations while her friends join a gathering of the = groom's=20 friends at the groom's house, where they consume vast quantities of = braga and=20 joke with one another. At one point in this gathering, the groom may = (although=20 this practice is apparently frowned upon by the elders) get up on a = bench and=20 pay or give gifts to any of the women who will climb up ther with him, = have a=20 drink and kiss him one last time. These gifts consist of things such as = soap,=20 towels, combs and a leafy bunch of twigs which is called a "venik." = These items=20 are intended for use in an afternoon bath in the traditional family = sauna, where=20 the bride and her entourage wash each other and ask the bride many = teasing=20 questions about her future life with the groom. If she answers these = questions=20 correctly, she gets cold water on her back, but if she answers them = "wrongly"=20 then she gets hot water and pretend-whippings from the wielder of the = venik.=20 This tradition is not often carried through, according to participants, = because=20 by that time the bride's friends are often too drunk to even wash = themselves.=20 Nonetheless, it is a variation on the more standard practice of washing = on the=20 afternoon or evening before a church service. These women then stay = overnight at=20 the bride's house, which is symbolically meant to be a protective = gesture for=20 the bride so that she will be certain of remaining "pure" right up to = the day of=20 the wedding.=20

Sunday is the day of the wedding, and the bride's relatives and = friends come=20 for her around 3:00 that morning. With what powers of stamina they are = able to=20 do this after a solid week of carousing and wedding preparations is not = known.=20 The bride is presented with her garments and is dressed by the podruga = (or=20 bridesmaid), and then covered with a shawl. The groom and his friends = and=20 relatives arrive around 4:00 or 5:00 in the morning. The groom has with = him a=20 "tysyachik," or spokesman, and a "svashka," or lady; both of these = individuals=20 are usually close relatives of the groom. They are usually older and = themselves=20 married. The tysyachik asks the podruga what they are all doing there so = early=20 in the morning, and she is supposed to reply that she is there to sell = the=20 bride. These two then proceed to bargain for the bride. In the old days, = gifts=20 of animals, grain or household goods were used, whereas today the = currency is=20 most often cash. A few recently married individuals who were open = revealed their=20 "prices" around $100-$160. A close male relative of the bride, usually = her=20 brother, then sells her braid, often threatening to cut it off with a = pair of=20 shears if a proper price is not paid for it (the price these days being=20 $15-$40). Then the bride's friends begin saying that they are hungry or = thirsty,=20 or that they are ill; and for these various "problems" they are given = "cures" of=20 pastries, braga, nuts and other edible treats. They divide the money = from the=20 bridal sale and these foods among themselves. Occasionally a boy will be = clandestinely substituted under the shawl in place of the bride so that = the=20 groom's family finds that they have purchased the boy and not the bride, = so in=20 some cases the tysyachik will take a precautionary peek under the shawl = to see=20 it he is getting what he bargains for. During this part of the ceremony = there is=20 considerable bargaining, joking about the quality of the "purchase," and = a lot=20 of braga.=20

After the sale, the bride comes out from beneath the shawl and forms = a chain=20 with the tysyachik, the groom, the bride, and then a svashka for the = bride and a=20 svashka for the groom, linked together in that order with handkerchiefs = held in=20 their hands. They must remain in this chain for the rest of that day, = with the=20 tysyachik always leading. They are then blessed at a table which = contains bread=20 and salt, and they then go to the church of the groom, where by this = time=20 regular services have been under way for some hours. They usually arrive = there=20 between 5:00 and 6:00 in the morning.=20

After the regular service has ended, everyone leaves except for the = bride,=20 groom, the members of their "chain," the parents of the bride and groom, = the=20 nastayatyel and three or four other male witnesses. None of the younger, = unmarried people are supposed to see the wedding ceremony itself, and = the first=20 one an Old Believer sees is usually his own. The bride and groom are = asked once=20 again three times if they are marrying of their free will, and if they = answer=20 yes, then the ceremony begins in earnest. It should be noted here that = although=20 there seem to be plenty of precautions against unwanted marriages, some = women=20 are forced into them through parental pressure. After an initial prayer = said in=20 unison, the bride and groom exchange rings three times, naming each = other=20 husband and wife. They are then blessed by their parents, who present = them with=20 the icons which have been chosen from among the supplies of both = families, to be=20 given to the newlyweds for their own household. When the blessings are = being=20 administered, the couple kneels before the parents of the two families.=20

After this, the bride is taken to the back of the church where a = dresser has=20 been set aside with her marriage-cap (sheshmura) and scarves are = waiting. She=20 removes here "krossota," or crown, which she has been wearing all = through the=20 ceremony, and the bridesmaids then plait her hair into two braids, tie = them up=20 over her head, and place the sheshmura over it and two scarves over = that. The=20 bride is now given the appearance of a married woman, since unmarried = women and=20 girls wear their hair in a single braid down the back. She is never to = show her=20 hair to any other man than her husband, according to traditional decree. =

She then proceeds to the groom, and bows before him to the floor, and = kisses=20 him. This is to indicate symbolically that she is now his and that she = will be=20 submissive toward him for the rest of her days. The "chain" then forms = again,=20 while the nastayatyel reads the portions of the sacred texts which = describe the=20 duties of wife and husband toward each other and toward their future = children.=20 The bride then says a prayer and asks her parents their forgiveness for = leaving=20 them to become a member, in essence, of the groom's family. After a = closing=20 group prayer, the ceremony is finished and the people go to the groom's = house=20 for breakfast.=20

After the breakfast, a party of men and boys who are members of the = bride's=20 family arrive at the groom's house with all the bride's belongings and = anything=20 the bridal family may have thrown in for their new household. Each man = has a=20 single item in his custody, and it is his duty to sell that item to the = groom's=20 family or to the groom itself. The tysyachik does the talking for the = groom most=20 of the time and bargains on his side. Prominent among these belongings = are the=20 bridal hope chest, a bundle of bedding and a chest containing the = decorations=20 and icon hangings which the bride has presumably been embroidering ever = since=20 she was a young girl. These are all sold amidst much joking and = drinking. But=20 the gifts and the money are real enough, and in this way often hundreds = of=20 dollars (in present-day weddings, at least) exchange hands between the = two=20 families.=20

The bride and groom then move in usually with the groom's family for = the=20 first few months, depending on the agreement with the families involved. = Lunch=20 and dinner on the day of the wedding are also loud and long, with much = food and=20 drink being consumed by the guests. After dinner, the couple usually = retire to=20 rest, since they are likely to be both exhausted, but the guests often = go on=20 celebrating into the night. Almost all the guests are expected to give = something=20 to the couple. The post-wedding ceremony celebrations may continue for = as long=20 as three or four days after the ceremony itself, this part being called = the=20 "svadba."=20

THE FUNERAL

Upon the death of an individual, the body is washed and prepared for = burial=20 by an older man or woman, usually a close relative of the deceased. A = few male=20 relatives then build a coffin and cross our of wood, if this has not = been done=20 already (some people build the coffins for their parents when they see = that=20 their parents have few years left to live). In the meantime, a dinner is = prepared and relatives and friends are summoned to the house of the = deceased for=20 evening services there. There is then a processional with the coffin to = the=20 cemetery, where more prayers are said as the coffin is lowered into the = ground.=20 Everyone present has to pitch some dirt over the grave, with a special = cloth=20 being placed by a "podruchnik," while the nastayatyel of the deceased = person's=20 church presides over the services.=20

The people then return to the home of the dead person for a dinner, = at the=20 end of which small presents are given by a relative of the deceased to = each=20 person present at the funeral. In exchange for this, each person is = bound to=20 pray for the deceased. Nine days after the funeral, another holy dinner = is given=20 if the family can afford it, and another is supposed to be prepared on = the=20 fortieth day and one year after the death. Some families may = posthumously=20 observe the name-day or day of death of the individual each year = subsequent to=20 her death. Although the nastayatyel cannot administer Holy Communion to=20 individuals because he is not an ordanined priest, the Old Believers do=20 apparently maintain among the parishes a supply of holy water which is = used for=20 the last rites, so that a person may receive the Holy Mystery before = death. This=20 water is said to have been blessed and sanctified by a pre-Nikonian = priest=20 during the early days of the Schism, and has been handed down since = then. It is=20 diluted each time it is used, with the idea being that at least some of = it will=20 be sacred no matter how many times it has to be used. Both the Harbintsi = and=20 Sinziantsi were apparently at one time groups which had their own = priests after=20 the Schism, but abandoned the priesthood under persecutions from = Nicholas I when=20 they were unable to find new priests to replace those who died of old = age. Thus,=20 over the years they gradually became like the priestless groups.=20

THE SPIRIT WORLD

The world view of the traditional Old Believer is understandably = strongly=20 influenced by religious dogma. Many of them to this day profess to = believe in=20 the existence of the Anti-Christ. Previous incarnations of the = Anti-Christ have=20 been said to be Peter the Great, Lenin and Stalin. Some believe that = Brezhnev is=20 the current bearer of the Anti-Christ, and that Soviet rule and the = persecution=20 of the Orthodoxy in that country was sent by God as punishment for what = the=20 post-Nikonian Orthodoxy did to the Old Believers and other conservative=20 schismatics. According to writings of the original Old Believers such as = the=20 Denisov brothers, the world was felt by them to be in its last days = during the=20 mid-1600s. This orientation and its consequent emphasis on the hereafter = and=20 salvation has carried over to some extent in present-day Old Believer = society.=20

The spirit world of the Old Believer is an active one, populated with = angels=20 and demons which constantly engage themselves in an every-day tug-of-war = for the=20 souls of people on earth. Demons are said to be particularly sneaky and=20 insidious; they can turn up anywhere. There are specific practices which = the=20 individual is supposed to use for his/her protection against invasion or = temptation at the hands of demons. For example, all open dishes should = be=20 dovered so that a demon cannot hide there and be eaten by the next = person to=20 take a meal from that dish. Likewise, most Old Believers cross = themselves before=20 taking a drink from a glass, particularly if the drink has been made = with water=20 from an unblessed source (such as tap water), and this is to prevent = water=20 demons from entering the body. Illnesses and personal misfortunes are=20 traditionally laid to the influence of demons, while good fortunes are = said to=20 be the rewards of the Lord for steadfast devotion and worship. Some say = that if=20 the person does bad things, then a demon comes to perch on his shoulder = and=20 offer temptations to further sins by whispering in the person's ears. = Likewise,=20 if the person is good, then an angel may come to ward off temptation = from the=20 devil. If the individual thinks good thoughts or prays a lot, then they = will be=20 inclined to hear the angels and not the demons, but if they forget to = pray or=20 think evil thoughts, then they are more likely to hear and be swayed by = the=20 demons.=20

Traditional Material Culture

This section concerns the habits of dress, diet, shelter and health = care=20 among the Old Believers as they have appeared in recent generations. The = woman's=20 dress is always a full dress which fits over a long-sleeved blouse and=20 full-length slips. An apron is then fitted over the dress and the = "poyas" (belt)=20 is tied around the waist. Unmarried women wear their hair in a braid = down the=20 back, married women use two braids and scarves. The total garment is = known as a=20 "sarafan," and is usually very brightly colored when colorful fabrics = are=20 available. In China and to some extent in Brazil, it was common for the = women to=20 weave their own cloth out of flax which they grew in their fields and = then to=20 dye it with juices from berries and other fruits.=20

The main items of religious significance are the poyas and the cross = on a=20 chain or thong around the neck. These symbolize the bond between their = bearers=20 and Christ. The other articles of dress are determined by a combination = of=20 religious doctrines and nonsecular custom. The women, for instance, are = never=20 permitted to cut their hair. This is specifically forbidden in their = Bible. They=20 also are never to show their arms above the wrists nor their legs above = the calf=20 in public, nor any other part of their bodies; thus, the full skirts.=20

The men traditionally wear a "rubashka," which is a tunic-like shirt = which=20 often has embroidery down the front and a high round collar reminiscent = of the=20 clerical collar found in the United States and Europe. They belt the = rubashka in=20 with the poyas, and also wear a cross on a chain tucked inside the = shirt. The=20 only other aspect of the men's appearance which is dictated by custom or = religious is their hair and beard. The hair is usually cut short in back = and on=20 the sides with a fringe of longer hair around the temples and front. The = beard=20 is uncut and grows to whatever length is natural for it to do. In their = Bible,=20 they are enjoined not to cut their hair at the temples nor to trim the = edges of=20 their beards, for to do so would be to deface the likeness of God, in = whose=20 image they were created. Although they are not quite as constrained by = religion=20 or custom in their dress as the women, the men do not seem to wear any = other=20 than full-length trousers and seldom go barechested, even when working = in the=20 heat. They also prefer brightly colored fabrics when they are available, = with=20 the rubashki usually being solid-hued in contrast with the prints and = patterns=20 of flowers which the women prefer for their dresses. For church = services, the=20 men will often wear a long black coat over their clothes. They and the = women=20 both are expected to dress cleanly but not ostentatiously for the church = services, since it is considered something of a sign of vanity to wear = bright or=20 overly pretty clothes to church. The most colorful and ornate outfits = are=20 consistently worn by the adolescents just prior to marriage, when they = are=20 courting.=20

Men and women both are forbidden to wear makeup and various kinds of = jewelry=20 or perfume, although this seems to have been increasingly relaxed in = recent=20 years for adolescent women in particular. It is now fairly common to see = young=20 women and girls with necklaces, bracelets and pierced ears (done by = their=20 mothers or older sisters), bedecked with earrings. Lipstick and = cosmetics,=20 however, are still largely shunned. Some of the young men do shave their = beards=20 until they marry, without serious reprimands at the hands of their = parents or=20 the church elders. These descriptions do not, however, hold for those = who are=20 breaking with traditions, and such individuals often wear American = clothes.=20

The dietary practices of the Old Believers are strictly regulated by = a series=20 of religious rules. Foremost among these are the fasts. There are the = four=20 Lenten fasts, which have been mentioned already. In addition, there are = certain=20 days of the week set aside for fasting. These are usually Wednesday and = Friday,=20 but in the event of various holidays, other days before days of fasting = as well.=20 During the fasts, all animal products are to be avoided, which usually = means no=20 meat, fish, butter, oil, eggs or dairy products. On some of the fast = days, fish=20 or fish and oil are permitted but nothing else. The second major rule is = the=20 injunction against eating with non-Believers or from the dish that a=20 non-Believer has used. When entertaining non-Staroveri guests, the = Staroveri are=20 quite hospitable but serve the guests on special dishes and with = utensils which=20 they themselves do not use. This rule was much easier to observe when = the Old=20 Believers were living in isolation in Brazil and China. In America there = has=20 been the problem of the proximity of non-Believers and the need of Old = Believers=20 to depend, especially during their early years in the county, on the=20 American-made foods in stores.=20

The basic stuff of which their diet is made is not unlike that of any = agrarian Eurasian people. Home-grown vegetables have predominated, along = with=20 breads and pastries made from wheat and corn. Meat is approved only if = it comes=20 from an animal with a cloven hoof. Animals with paws are regarded as = unfit to=20 eat. Thus, unless they are desperate, Old Believers will not eat animals = such as=20 squirrel, rabbit or bear. Fish and hardbacked shellfish are considered = edible.=20 Meals are essentially interchangeable, so that what is served for = breakfast also=20 may be served for lunch, dinner or for snacks. Although there are strict = religious prohibitions against the consumption of alcoholic beverages, = the Old=20 Believers nevertheless do prepare their home-made wine or "braga." As = previously=20 mentioned, this brew is used in weddings and for other celebrations, and = it also=20 figures heavily in Sunday socializing and hospitality toward guests. = When asked=20 about this apparent inconsistency, some responded that they did not know = why=20 that was the case.=20

There also are special foods and treats which are reserved for the = bigger=20 holidays and festive occasions, such as weddings. One of these is = "Paskha,"=20 which is eaten only at Christmas and Easter. This is a confection of = cream,=20 cream cheese, sugar, eggs, milk, butter, nuts and fruits, which is = richer than=20 cheesecake.=20

The arrangement of housing for Old Believers has surprisingly few=20 restrictions to it. In fact, houses seem to have varied considerably as = the=20 group moved from place to place. In China, the houses were usually=20 one-or-two-room affairs made of logs, half-logs or sod. Some of the = stove and=20 oven arrangements were apparently copied from those of the local Chinese = peasants, who used adobe or clay for making large wood-or-dung-fueled = baking=20 ovens, on top of which was a platform for children or sick people to bed = down=20 during the winter. Furniture was sparse, with a single table and = rough-hewn=20 benches serving for most purposes. Because everything was made by hand = and each=20 person made their own items, houses varied with the abilities and = available time=20 of the builders. Another traditional building was the sauna bath, which = many of=20 the Old Believers also use in their homes nowadays. With one barrel of = water=20 being heated by the stove (usually a wood stove) and the other standing = free,=20 individuals could mix their water as they wished in buckets, which they = could=20 then pour over themselves or each other. The box of rocks on top of the = stove=20 made a steam-bath when water was poured on them.=20

When they first arrived in America, the Old Believers could not = obtain land=20 immediately and so had to live in apartments or migrant labor camps at = first.=20 Later on, they rented houses or bought completed ones from Americans. = Those who=20 have actually built their houses are usually construction workers or = carpenters,=20 and as such, have copied American designs and layouts for their own = homes. They=20 do not retain the special corner for the family icons, which is supposed = to be=20 the corner nearest to where the sun rises. The Old Believers thus do not = appear=20 exceptionally tradition-bound in their house construction. In Brazil, = because of=20 the sudden rains and resultant floods in their area, some of them = reputedly=20 built their houses on stilts, which reflects the rather adaptive = attitude many=20 of them seem to have with regard to housing. (Houses on stilts were = built in Old=20 Russia.)=20

The Staroveri from Manchuria and Sinkiang both seem to have lacked=20 full-fledged healers of their own, although they did have a considerable = arsenal=20 of folk cures and herbal medical recipes among them. Most matters are = seen to be=20 with a combination of folk medicine and prayer. As mentioned before in = the=20 section on religious matters, the Old Believers prefer to have a person = of the=20 faith deliver babies. Consequently, women have trained themselves and = each other=20 as midwives, who take care of most of the births.=20

The Old Believers have come to increasingly rely on the American = medical=20 industry, as they have come to believe in its efficacy. There are even = mothers=20 now who attend pre-natal clinics in Woodburn and have their children = delivered=20 in hospitals (although with a nastayatyel nearby, when they can manage = it).=20

The Old Believers and Public Education

Some of the most potent forces for change among the Old Believers = came from=20 the impact of public education on the young. I will begin this section = with a=20 review of the history of public education of the Old Believers since = their=20 arrival, with attention to the motivations and intentions of both school = personnel and the Old Believers. Subsequently, material will be = presented on the=20 Old Believer educational experiences and the roles such experiences play = in=20 increasing the potential for identity change among the young.=20

Upon the arrival of the Russians to the area, educators immediately = focused=20 on the problems of getting the children to attend public schools. = Because the=20 Russians were spread over several districts, the problem could not be=20 conveniently dealt with in the context of a single school or district. = Hence,=20 every district was in large part left to work out solutions for itself. = All of=20 them began by attempting to step up the enforcement of truancy laws, = which met=20 with poor success because of the scope of the problem and the language = barrier.=20 Once a few translators became available for specific cases, the word = began to=20 spread throughout the Russian community that it was the American law = that their=20 children attend public schools.=20

The reaction to this was apparently mixed. On the one hand, many = parents=20 realized that their children would need to know how to speak, read and = write=20 English in order to get along in America, and only the schools could = dependably=20 provide them with that. On the other hand, most of the families needed = all=20 available hands for getting themselves out of debt and onto a solid = financial=20 footing. Parents wanted their children to work with them in the fields = or stay=20 home and baby-sit younger siblings. The result was that a minority of = the=20 parents sent their kids to school at first, with the proportion = gradually=20 increasing for several years, until something of a take-off point was = reached=20 after which the majority of five, six, and seven-year-olds in the = community were=20 coming to first grade or kindergarten. The sudden upsurge in recent = years was=20 probably due to at least two causes: The reduced fear and mistrust of = public=20 education by the parents, and the achievement by many families after = several=20 years of a sufficiently large financial base that they could afford to = let their=20 kids go to school rather than work.=20

Once substantial numbers of children were in school, several issues = developed=20 for both the Old Believers and the Anglo-American community. The first = of these=20 was again an attendance issue: It was observed by many school personnel = that=20 Russian attendance was sporadic, on the average, particularly during the = early=20 fall and late spring. It turned out that one of the reasons for spotty=20 attendance was the religious holidays. After initial negotiations with = parents=20 and children, most of the districts appeared to come to a realization = that they=20 might risk losing the entire community of Old Believers if they = contested the=20 observance of the holidays. Thus, the administrative decision was = reached not to=20 penalize the children for missing classes for the holidays. Lists were = provided,=20 by knowledgeable members of the Anglo community, of the holidays so that = teachers could not be tricked by children on this matter. Other reasons = for lax=20 attendance was said to be the fact that berry-picking season does not = end until=20 early to mid-September and the time for training the hops begins in late = spring.=20 Thus, even at present, many of the kids who want to earn spending money = or whose=20 families need the extra cash will take off time from school early and = late in=20 the school year to work in the berries and hops.=20

As the first waves of Russian students advanced through the = elementary grades=20 and into junior high school, it became increasingly apparent to the = school=20 personnel that the drop-out rate for the upper elementary grades was = chronically=20 high, so that few Old Believers made it to the seventh or eighth grade, = and=20 almost none made it into high school. The average drop-out time appeared = to=20 stabilize around the fifth and sixth grades, and has remained there to = the=20 present time. It appears that there are two primary forces operating = here, with=20 a third intervening factor providing reinforcement of the trend. First, = parents=20 are largely of the opinion that the primary service offered by the = schools which=20 they wish their children to benefit from is the basic competency in = English=20 speaking, reading and writing, and arithmetic. Once that competency has = been=20 attained, there is no further need for schooling. Besides, too much = schooling is=20 held to be dangerous for the children in the sense that the parents fear = they=20 will be introduced to secular ideas which will draw them away from the = religion=20 and customs. Consequently, when the parents believe their children are=20 functionally literate in English and can figure, they pressure them to = withdraw=20 from school, go to work and get married as quickly as possible.=20

The second major factor here is the desire of the children themselves = to get=20 out on their own and have a job and some independence before they get to = marriageable age. Several adolescents cited this as their main reason = for=20 dropping out. They saw that they would have to accede to parental = pressure to=20 get married in a few more years, and the time was growing short in which = they=20 could earn enough to buy their own car or go out on sprees with their = friends.=20

The third reinforcing factor is the isolation the individual Old = Believer=20 student feels when most of his/her peers have already left the school. = Several=20 who were relatively late in dropping out indicated that not only did = they miss=20 their friends, but the American children increasingly left them out of = things as=20 they matured and began dating and showing interest in the opposite sex. = Thus, a=20 high and early drop-out rate tended to be self-reinforcing through the=20 motivational feedback loop described above.=20

A final set of issues which arose in the early years of contact = between the=20 public education system and the Old Believer community revolved around = problems=20 in cultural conflict in the classroom itself. Specific issues which have = been=20 listed by Russian parents include the violation of food taboos through = lunch=20 programs, violation of dress taboos through PE, and the inclusion of = music,=20 clapping and dancing in the curricula. A more general fear which many of = the=20 parents expressed was that of the school introducing new untraditional = ideas and=20 values to the children and thereby tempting them to stray from the = traditions,=20 and the loss of capability in Russian and Church Slavonic because of the = time=20 and effort taken to learn English.=20

Reaction to these fears by the Anglo-American school personnel and = the=20 community was somewhat mixed, particularly among the teachers involved. = The=20 majority felt that the Russians had no real right to resist = Americanization to=20 the extent that Anglo-Americans perceived them as doing. "They are here = not,=20 they should expect to live the way Americans live. You can't hold back = progress.=20 After all, my own grandparents had to do that when they came over," as = an=20 American parent expressed it, was a fairly common view. Although there = were many=20 variations and shadings of this judgment, most of the teachers who felt = this way=20 viewed and educational process as an instrument of acculturation. By = learning=20 English and being in the classroom with American teachers and students, = the=20 Russian children would begin to learn and appreciate American culture. = They=20 would emerge from the school prepared to take their place in American = society as=20 productive, "modernized" individuals.=20

A minority among the teachers and American community, but a very = active and=20 vocal one, responded differently. They decided to side with the Russian = parents=20 in their desire to maintain the religion and traditions of their = culture. They=20 said that the Old Believers have a right to remain as they wish to be as = long as=20 they do not break actual laws in so doing. They would cite the recent = successful=20 court battles of the Amish and other cultural minority groups over = enforced=20 school attendance to document the claim that the Russians would not be = breaking=20 the law if they chose to withhold their children from public schooling. = Some of=20 the teachers whose views put them in this camp felt that the public = schools=20 should obligate themselves to at least avoid placing the students in = positions=20 or situations in which they must compromise with their traditions. = Further, if=20 possible, the schools should make some effort toward meeting the Old = Believers=20 half-way by providing Russian-speaking aides or teachers and perhaps = teaching=20 Russian language skills to those who desired them. These people saw the = school=20 as a means to assisting the Russians in stabilizing their culture and = fortifying=20 the children against pressures to change from other sectors of the = American=20 culture.=20

As increasingly sharp divisions within the schools became apparent = over these=20 issues, compromises began to be worked out. Many schools hired = Russian-speaking=20 aides from among the more English-fluent Old Believers who had gone = through some=20 schooling already. They began searching for Russian-speaking certified=20 elementary teachers to fill at least the lower grades, in which the = children=20 were least likely to be competent in English. In some schools, cooks = were=20 instructed to leave meat and eggs out of the Russian hot lunches on = appropriate=20 fast days, students were not required to participate in PE or music = education if=20 they did not choose to do so, nor did they have to salute the flag. Some = effort=20 was made on the part of schools to familiarize teachers with the basics = of the=20 Russian culture and particularly those aspects of the traditions which = they=20 might inadvertently cross in the classroom. Most of these efforts were=20 unsystematic and depended primarily on the motivation of individuals to = become=20 informed.=20

The most radical renovations of curricula and classroom structure = occurred in=20 the Woodburn district, which has the largest population of Russians = among the=20 districts. They came out of the acquisition by that district of Title 7 = federal=20 funds under the aegis of the Civil Rights Act, for the purpose of = establishing=20 bilingual educational programs in the elementary schools for the = Chicanos and,=20 almost as an afterthought, for the Russians as well. The main forces for = obtaining the funds came from the Centro Cultural and the Valley Migrant = League,=20 both of which were initially concerned solely with the Chicano issue. = The=20 Russian program was tacked on through the last-minute efforts of a few = educators=20 and concerned community members. The program has been in operation since = 1970=20 and its professed goals include the training of the students for a = bicultural=20 existence through teaching both Russian And English and by familiarizing = Russian=20 and American children with aspects of both cultures.=20

Within the program itself, curriculum changes have been numerous and = are only=20 recently beginning to stabilize, as the teachers come to agreements on = what=20 works and what does not. Most of the teachers in this program profess = themselves=20 to be interested in helping the Russians maintain their culture and also = to=20 function competently in American society; however, those teachers also = indicated=20 that they could not always find easy solutions to problems which arose = from=20 these goals. First, the teaching of both English and Russian is = time-consuming=20 for teacher and student alike. Added to that is the fact that many of = the=20 students are not at first sufficiently fluent in English speaking to be = ready=20 for reading and writing in that language. Thus, the teachers and = students are=20 engaged in a continual battle with time-lags. Most of the teachers said = that=20 they began with equal emphasis on Russian and English, but soon saw that = they=20 were not getting the English across fast enough so they felt compelled = to set up=20 the amount of English instruction at the expense of the Russian. Another = problem=20 has arisen in the form of children who claim that they did not want to = be=20 traditional any more. The teacher is then thrown into a quandary over = whether to=20 respect the wishes of the child or the parents and community.=20

With all of this taken into consideration, how are the schools = affecting the=20 potential for identity and cultural change in the Russian community? = There are=20 three main effects. The first, and most widely ramified, is the = acquisition of=20 English competency and familiarity with various aspects of American = culture and=20 society through public education. This competency, combined with the = learning=20 which takes place outside the school, makes the Old Believer youth = capable of=20 actually living outside the Russian community should they ever have the = need or=20 desire to do so. This means that, for perhaps the first time in their = recent=20 history, a large sector of the community has been given the power to = make a=20 living independent of family and community. Another ramification is that = it=20 allows the young to obtain higher-paying jobs than their parents. This = tends to=20 upset traditional status-roles within the family. A third ramification = is=20 linguistic change, specifically of a possible gradual decline in the = quality and=20 usage of Russian among the young. There are two factors which appear to = produce=20 this trend, however weak or strong it may be. One is the preponderance = of=20 literacy among the young in English but not in Russian. Public = educational=20 influence has reached the point of making Old Believer children more = competent=20 even in spoken English to some extent than they are in Russian. The = other factor=20 is the inability of the dialect used by this group to provide them with = the=20 means to talk about many American things which now figure heavily in = their=20 lives, technological and legal matters being among the foremost.=20

The second fundamental impact of the schools on the potential for = change=20 comes from exactly what the Russian parents feared: exposure to = non-traditional=20 ideas and values. The children are taught that the religious books are = the Word=20 of God, infallible and not to be contested; however, the American = attitudes=20 toward areas in which the Russians have taboos (food, dress and sex = being among=20 the main subjects) and the teachings of Western nonsecular science do = actively=20 contest those books. Thus, the child is not only exposed to the notion = that it=20 is OK to eat candy during Lent, wear short skirts and sleeveless shirts = and=20 blouses, and learn about human reproduction, but also presented with=20 demonstrations and doctrines which claim that the Earth is round, that = it moves=20 around the sun and not vice versa, that ghosts, witches and demons as = they know=20 them do not exist, and that men have been to the moon. Some are = convinced and/or=20 troubled by these notions and demonstrations, others are not. For those = who are,=20 they are then faced with the problem of resolving the consequent = dissonance=20 between the teachings of their traditions and those of American schools. =

The third effect of the school experience on the potential for change = is that=20 of exposure to and increased familiarity with American peers. It is in = the early=20 school experiences that the young Old Believers first learn that their = way of=20 life is in some aspects more restrictive than that of the Americans = their age.=20 They are then motivated to question the difference and, in some cases, = to=20 question the need for those restrictions.=20

Contact with the Law

The school attendance problem came to the attention of the legal = community=20 because of the inability of the schools involved to come to an early = settlement=20 of the matter on their own. A "test case" was brought before the = Juvenile Court=20 in Salem in August of 1969, in which a ruling was handed down concerning = the=20 numbers of days' absences which would be tolerable; however, the = presiding judge=20 was heard to say a couple of years later that his decision of that time = would=20 not hold if tested again in light of the various higher court battles = which had=20 taken place over the Amish. Juvenile Department officials have stated as = of 1975=20 (to the Russian Advisory Committee) that it is their policy to stand = clear of=20 truancy matters unless delinquency also is involved.=20

The Old Believers and the World of = Antichrist

The Old Believers and the World of Antichrist (excerpts from Robert = Crummey's=20 book)=20

Toward the end of the Seventeenth Century, Old Belief was a = diversified=20 movement that, under the sign of resistance to Nikon's liturgical = reforms,=20 united opposition to change in the Russian Orthodox church, the imperial = administration and the social order. Many of its adherents encapsulated = their=20 hatred of everything new and oppressive in Russian life in the = apocalyptic=20 symbol of Antichrist. The symbol and the mood it expressed demanded = resistance=20 to the state and the official church--the instruments of Antichrist. = For, in=20 both symbolic and practical terms, the faithful were not to submit to = his power.=20

The logic of their position, then, led the Old Believers to a = confrontation=20 with the power of the imperial government. The overwhelming weight of = their=20 adversary, however, posed an agonizing problem of strategy. How could = the=20 faithful best make a stand against the legions of Antichrist? They had = at most=20 three possibilities--armed revolt, flight into some hidden refuge or the = construction of fortress communities that would rally and shelter the = defenders=20 of the old faith.=20

The hopelessness of armed rebellion limited its appeal in time and = space.=20 When, in the Seventeenth Century, many Old Believers were convinced that = the end=20 of the world was imminent, there was no need for concern about the = continuance=20 of the true faith. It was therefore justifiable for the faithful to = strike a=20 satisfying blow at the enemy and meet their inevitable fate, sword in = hand. In=20 the Olonets area of north Russia, rebellion blended with mass suicide, = another=20 expression of belief in the imminence of the apocalypse. When life went = on past=20 the projected dates for the final consummation, the urge to armed = resistance=20 weakened in the north. Thereafter Old Believer rebellion was limited to=20 participation in the great peasant and Cossack revolts of the Eighteenth = Century. Old Believers of southern Russia, whether peasants or Cossacks, = took=20 part enthusiastically in the Bulavin uprising and the revolt of = Pugachev. In the=20 latter instance, early in the reign of Catherine II, however, the = reactions of=20 the supporters of Old Belief were distinctly ambivalent. Many, including = the=20 residents of the Irgiz monasteries in the lower Volga valley, refused to = support=20 the rebels. And after Pugachev, the tradition of rebellion faded into = memory or=20 the nostalgic imagining of uprisings that never were.=20

The Old Believers of northern Russia found flight from Antichrist's = power a=20 more attractive alternative than open revolt. The hermits who spread Old = Belief=20 to the Olonets region and other equally remote corners of the empire = sought=20 havens where they could live a contemplative life and keep the old faith = alive=20 without interference from outside. In the late Seventeenth Century, = however, the=20 central administration's increasing control over even the lightly = populated=20 districts of the north and Siberia and over the Cossack country made = such=20 refugees well-nigh impossible to find. In the Olonets area, for example, = no Old=20 Believer hermitage could escape detection forever. Nevertheless, the = difficulty=20 of flight into the "desert" did not prevent the more intransigent of the = Old=20 Believers from attempting to follow this strategy even in the present = century.=20 In the 1740s, for example, the Filippovtsy broke with Vyg and tried=20 unsuccessfully to withdraw from contact with government's agents. Even = later,=20 the beguny ("the runners") rejected all contacts of any kind with = Antichrist's=20 world. The practical impossibility of their position, however, soon = forced them=20 to adopt a double standard. The zealots of the sect indeed refused to = touch any=20 documents bearing the seal of Antichrist, including money; but, in order = to=20 survive physically and enjoy communal religious life of even a = rudimentary sort,=20 they depended on a network of sympathizers who lived ordinary laymen's = lives. In=20 this life, then, one simply could not escape Antichrist's power and keep = alive=20 the old faith and the dream of a better world.=20

The third path was the narrowest and thorniest of all. It was, at the = same=20 time, a particularly attractive one, especially when it became clear = that=20 Antichrist's resign would continue into the indefinite future. Andrei = Denisov=20 and the leaders of the Vygovskaia Pustyn (Old Belief Monastery in the = "Vyg=20 Wilderness") saw clearly that their task was to keep alive the old faith = in the=20 new world of Peter I. To do so, they had to create a religious = organization and=20 a cultural life for the scattered cells of Old Believers. And, above = all, they=20 had to build a community that would be a nerve center of that = organization and=20 the bearer of that culture.=20

As the earlier hermits had already discovered, however, the arm of = the state=20 was long. The leaders of Vyg and the other Old Believer communities = therefore=20 had no choice but to reach a "modus vivendi" with the imperial = government (they=20 decided to settle temporarily until a final settlement could be = reached). It was=20 fortunate for them that Peter I was prepared to treat the Old Believers=20 pragmatically, if not with tolerance. Those, like the residents of Vyg, = who=20 could offer the government their services, gained freedom to build the = community=20 of their dreams. The accommodation with the state, however, posed = agonizing and=20 ultimately insoluble problems.=20

The price of freedom of action was discretion. Any member who = denounced the=20 power of Antichrist for what it was risked calling down the wrath of the = government upon the community. The Vyg fathers therefore had to rein in = the=20 enthusiasm of their followers by persuasion and by introducing strict = norms of=20 communal discipline. The great monasteries of the Russian middle ages = offered=20 the ideal model of a strictly disciplined religious community and it was = to this=20 model that Andrei Denisov turned for inspiration. As his own statement=20 indicates, the Solovetskii Monastery was a particularly attractive = example=20 because its monks had made a resolute stand for the old faith. To be = sure, the=20 Vyg fathers had to adjust the pattern in many respects in order to make = it fit a=20 community that was self-generating, dependent entirely on the support of = laymen,=20 and inhabited by both men and women. Nevertheless, Vyg, on the whole, = adhered to=20 the monastic pattern, given the Old Believers' isolation from the = traditional=20 centers of religious authority and the hazardous political and material=20 conditions in which they lived.=20

The members of the community succeeded admirably in surmounting the=20 formidable material difficulties that they faced. Although the community = was=20 located in one of the most forbidding regions of northern Russia, the = ingenuity=20 of its leaders and the hard work of its members brought it prosperity. = At the=20 height of its development, the economy of Vyg was a remarkably balanced = blend of=20 agriculture, stock-raising, workshop manufacturing, commercial fishing = and=20 speculative trade. The Old Believers' position as a religious minority = helped=20 rather than hindered the community's economic ventures; like other Old=20 Believers, the members of Vyg depended on the help of a network of = sympathizers=20 scattered across Russia to provide capital, economic intelligence and = various=20 personal services. Moreover, its agents could trade freely with the = servants of=20 Antichrist unhindered by any moral sanctions or bonds of personal = sympathy. The=20 community's economic success, however, did nothing to resolve its = political=20 dilemma.=20

From the beginning, the Vyg community was caught between the demands = of the=20 state whose goodwill was essential for survival and the apocalyptic = enthusiasm=20 of its members. For nearly half a century, its leaders succeeded in = mitigating=20 the pressure from both sides, but in the end, Vyg was squeezed to death = in the=20 vise. Under the leadership of the Denisov brothers, Vyg maintained good=20 relations with the Russian court by gentle deception. Although the = rulers of the=20 empire received countless letters and gifts from the community, its = members=20 avoided recognizing the legitimacy of the imperial throne by praying for = its=20 occupant. When faced with the choice between submission or the = destruction of=20 the community, the leaders of Vyg chose survival and continued ministry = to the=20 faithful. At this point, however, even a demanding monastic rule could = not hold=20 the members in line. The more militant would have none of the compromise = and=20 withdrew their support. Even though its leaders subsequently retracted = their=20 concession to the government, the crisis cost Vyg the support of many of = its=20 former adherents and, more significantly, its integrity.=20

Submission postponed the community's fate but could not change it. = After the=20 pivotal crisis of the 1740's, Vyg was, in no sense, a source of = explicitly=20 political opposition to the imperial regime. Yet, its very existence as = a=20 stronghold of a determined religious minority made it unacceptable to = the=20 government. The comparatively liberal regimes of the late Eighteenth and = early=20 Nineteenth centuries did not disturb its tranquility, but when Nicholas = I=20 undertook his crusade against the Old Believer communities of Russia, = Vyg was=20 defenseless. The third road--the building of a community--also = terminated in a=20 blind end.=20

The history of the Vyg community, then, is the story of unavoidable = failure.=20 Its fate, however, does not diminish the significance of its = achievements. The=20 members of Vyg succeeded in building thriving settlements that brought=20 prosperity to a poor and thinly populated forest region. Their = community,=20 moreover, became the spiritual capital of the numerous priestless Old = Believers=20 of Russia. From traditional materials, its leaders created a new culture = which=20 offered the Old Believers a satisfying alternative to the westernized = culture of=20 official society. Even today traces of its cultural influence can still = be found=20 in remote corners of Northern Russia. Admittedly, by the time that the=20 official's assaults were launched, Vyg's membership had begun to dwindle = and its=20 creativity was gone. Nevertheless, what is remarkable about the history = of Vyg=20 is not that a community declined and was destroyed, but that, in the = face of=20 insuperable obstacles, it survived so long and achieved so much.=20

Preface to Robert Crummey's book

PREFACE (to the book by Robert Crummey)=20

In the many general histories of Russia, the Old Believers, like a = river in=20 the desert, appear at their source, the great church schism of the = Seventeenth=20 century, then go underground and thereafter appear only intermittently = on the=20 surface of national events. A good American textbook, for example, = describes the=20 liturgical reforms of Patriarch Nikon and the church council of 1666-67, = then=20 mentions the Old Believers thereafter chiefly as participants in the = Moscow=20 uprising of 1682 and the Bulavin rebellion of 1707, as opponents of the = reforms=20 of Peter the Great, and as victims of persecution in the reigns of = Alexander III=20 and Nicholas II at the end of its imperial period. Nevertheless, as the = writer=20 of the same text observes, Old Belief not only survived the original = schism and=20 the persecutions that followed, but increased in numbers and internal = cohesion=20 until "it claimed the allegiance of millions of Russians up to the = Revolution of=20 1917 and after." An official of the imperial government estimated in = 1868 that,=20 that that time, approximately ten million subjects of Alexander II were = Old=20 Believers or adherents of the more radical sects that probably grew from = the=20 same roots.=20

Their numerical strength alone would make the Old Believers a = significant=20 element in the history of Russian society and culture. Yet the estimate = that, at=20 the turn of this century, the schismatics constituted roughly twelve to = fifteen=20 percent of the population of the Russian empire reveals nothing of the = qualities=20 that gave them a special role in their country's history. A preliminary = glance=20 over the landscape of Old Belief in the mid-Nineteenth century might = well raise=20 doubts that any common features could be found in such a confusion of = shapes and=20 colors. On the surface, the movement--and even so vague a word may be = too=20 precise for accuracy--consisted of a myriad of large and small sub-sects = which=20 fought endless skirmishes over minuscule questions of ecclesiastical = ritual.=20 Socially its adherents covered a spectrum ranging from wealthy merchants = and=20 industrial entrepreneurs to Cossacks and black-soil peasants. Their = style of=20 life varied from the busy and prosperous life of the pillars of the = Moscow=20 merchant community to the ascetic existence of the monks and nuns who = lived in=20 the hermitages scattered through the silent forests of the European = north and=20 Siberia.=20

In spite of their diversity, however, common attitudes and practices = united=20 the scattered branches of Old Belief. As their name suggests, all of = them=20 rejected the reformed service books which Patriarch Nikon introduced in = the=20 1650's and preserved pre-Nikonian liturgical practices in as complete a = form as=20 canonical regulations permitted. For some Old Believers, the defense of = the old=20 liturgy and traditional culture was a matter of primary importance; for = all, the=20 old ritual was at least a badge of identification and a unifying slogan. = The Old=20 Believers were united in their hostility toward the Russian state, which = supported the Nikonian reforms and persecuted those who, under the = banner of the=20 old faith, opposed the new order in the church and the secular = administration.=20 To be sure, the intensity of their hostility and the language and = gestures with=20 which they expressed it varied as widely as their social background and = their=20 devotional practices. Nevertheless, when the government applied pressure = to one=20 section of the movement, all of its adherents instinctively drew = together and=20 extended to their beleaguered brethren whatever help they could. While = the=20 chasms that divided the sects of Old Belief from one another were deep, = none was=20 so profound as the gulf that divided the most conservative of them from = the=20 state.=20

The Old Believers were likewise united in their rejection of the = westernized=20 culture and manners of officialdom and the upper classes. In theory, all = of=20 their chief sects attempted to preserve unchanged the literary and = artistic=20 styles, the costume, and even the handwriting of the early Seventeenth = century.=20 In practice, however, even an alienated and embattled minority cannot = find=20 nourishment in the petrified culture of a past age. In the Eighteenth = and=20 Nineteenth centuries, the Old Believers created their own distinct,=20 substantially new culture as a counterpoise to the official culture of = imperial=20 Russia. True to their intention, they preserved as much as possible of = the old=20 ways; but new challenges forced them to create new arguments and new = artistic=20 forms based on the old or even to adopt the stylistic weapons of their = official=20 adversaries in their struggle to defend the tradition. At its best, the=20 counter-culture of Old Belief was both staunchly conservative and = impressively=20 creative.=20

The creative ingenuity of the Old Believers is equally notable in = their=20 economic activities. As historians of Old Belief and of Russian economic = development have often pointed out, the schismatics chief centers of = population=20 often achieved prosperity in spite of persecution and a hostile natural=20 environment through hard work and careful marshalling of their = resources. In the=20 mid-Nineteenth century, moreover, a remarkably high proportion of the = new class=20 of industrial entrepreneurs were Old Believers.=20

The course of the movement's history, moreover, reveals almost as = much about=20 the policies and administrative methods of the imperial government as = about the=20 aspirations and achievements of its own members, Old Belief was a = photographic=20 negative of official society. The first opponents of Nikon's liturgical = reforms=20 and the disaffected who flocked to their banners armed themselves with = anger at=20 the existing order in church and society, but, beyond this, had no = specific=20 platform and no clear vision of the kind of society to which they = aspired. As=20 the years passed, it was the imperial government which, by the = executioner's=20 sword and the bureaucrat's pen, applied specific pressures to the Old = Believers=20 and elicited from them the specific responses which formed the = foundation of=20 their political theory and practice, their internal organization, and = their=20 economic practices. To a considerable degree, the imperial government = was the=20 unwitting creator of the institutions and attitudes of Old Belief, as = they=20 existed in the mid-Nineteenth century.=20

The history of Old Belief in the first two hundred years of its = existence may=20 be divided into two periods. From the first protests against the = Nikonian=20 reforms until the accession of Peter III in 1762, the raskol = ("schism")=20 was a persecuted underground movement. Most of its bulk was below the = surface,=20 hidden in silence or feigned allegiance to the official Orthodox church. = The few=20 open centers of the movement were located on the remote fringes of the = empire's=20 territory or even across the border in the sanctuary of neighboring = states. The=20 reigns of Peter III and Catherine II inaugurated the second period in = the=20 history of Old Belief. The two rulers dismantled all of the secular = legislation=20 designed to penalize or destroy the Old Believers and granted them = toleration,=20 and emancipation encouraged all but the most intransigent to come out = into the=20 open. Large communities of sectarians emerged from the underground and = many of=20 the =E9migr=E9s returned to settle in their homeland. In the process, = the center of=20 gravity of Old Belief shifted from the old points of concentration on = the=20 frontier to the large and wealthy communities of Moscow. For several = decades,=20 Old Belief thrived. In the end, however, its very freedom was its = undoing. When=20 the government of Nicholas I began to persecute dissident and = potentially=20 dangerous minorities among his subjects, the main Old Believer = communities were=20 easy targets for his gendarmes. One by one, all of the main centers of = Old=20 Belief were disbanded or, at least, deprived of their functions as = religious and=20 administrative foci of the movement. Although its policy of renewed = persecution=20 failed to stop the steady increase in the number of Old Believers in the = empire,=20 Nicholas' regime succeeded in beheading Old Belief institutionally and = socially.=20

(Excerpt from Chapter 1 -- "The Struggle Begins">=20

The populist historians viewed Old Belief primarily as a movement of=20 political, social, and cultural opposition. According to A.P. Shchapov = and his=20 school, the Nikonian reforms were not so much the cause as the catalyst, = setting=20 off an explosive mixture of resistance to the increasing centralization = and=20 bureaucratization of the Russian state, serfdom, and the rising tide of = western=20 influence on Muscovite institutions and manners. Old Belief--the defense = of the=20 pre-Nikonian liturgy--was the banner under which the peasant rebels of = Razin and=20 Pugachev fought the tsar's armies. Under the same standard, the = schismatic=20 communities around the borders of the empire withdrew from Russian = society to=20 create their own communal institutions and their own traditionalist = culture,=20 which fulfilled the desires and channeled the creativity of the lower = classes of=20 Russia.
----------------------------------------
The liturgical = reforms,=20 one of the products of the nascent internationalism of the court circle, = ran=20 counter to the widely held attitudes usually summarized in the loosely = tied=20 bundle of historical conceptions known as the Third Rome doctrine. In = their=20 attacks on the liturgical reforms, Avvakum (one of the first leaders of = Old=20 Belief) and the other Old Believer spokesmen from among the parish = clergy and=20 the monks repeatedly stressed that, after the apostasy of the first Rome = and of=20 Bysantium, only Moscow preserved Christian orthodoxy. To be sure, = Avvakum and=20 his sympathizers were not alone in believing that Russian Orthodoxy was = "the=20 only currency in the economy of salvation"; members of the reforming = party,=20 including Nikon, shared the same views. From the doctrine, however, = Avvakum drew=20 conclusions quite different from those of Tsar Alexis and Nikon. For the = Old=20 Believers, the issue was simple, at least on the surface. If Ivan IV and = his=20 subjects possessed the true faith, then no detail of the dogma or the = ritual of=20 his time could be changed. For to change even "the last letter a" was to = corrupt=20 the faith. And what worse fate could befall the Russian church than to = change=20 its practices to conform to those of the apostate Greeks? The choice, = then, was=20 either Ivan IV or Nikon--to affirm or to deny the validity of Russia's = past=20 history. In Avvakum's mind, the liturgical reforms automatically and = immediately=20 posed such stark alternatives. . . . The defense of the old ritual = became the=20 defense of Russia's history. . . . As western influence continued to = grow, it=20 became a defense of native cultural tradition as well.=20

Sources

SOURCES=20

1. Of Icons and Motorcycles: a sociological study of acculturation = among=20 Russian Old Believers in Central Oregon and Alaska (Vol. II of Chapters = III and=20 IV). By Michael James Smithson. A dissertation presented to the = Department of=20 Sociology and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon for Degree = of=20 Philosophy. December, 1976.=20

2. The Old Believers and the World of Antichrist, Robert O. Crummey. = The=20 University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, 1970.=20

3. The Russian's World, life and language, Genevra Gerhart. Harcourt = Brace=20 Jovanovich, Inc., San Francisco, 1974.=20

4. Manual for Educators of Russian Old Believers Children in Oregon, = compiled=20 by Marion County Russian Resource Committee, October 1976.=20

Russian Proverbs

Russian Proverbs
1. Chase after two rabbits and you won't catch=20 one.
2. Nice to be a guest but there's no place like home.
3. Just = let=20 there be a forest and there's sure to be a forest spirit.
4. = Everybody is=20 both his own friend and enemy.
5. Don't impose your regulations on = another's=20 monastery.
6. One doesn't look a gift horse in the mouth.
7. The = task=20 fears its master.
8. Houses are not built with the tongue but with = rubles=20 (money) and hatchets.
9. Judge not others, look at yourself.
10. = However=20 well you feed the wolf, he keeps looking to the woods.
11. Like = father, like=20 son.
12. The key is master of the lock.
13. He who is destined to = hang=20 won't drown.
14. He who lied yesterday won't be believed = tomorrow.
15.=20 Forge the iron while it's hot.
16. A kind word is stronger than a=20 cudgel.
17. If you like to coast, you must also like to pull the = sleigh=20 uphill.
18. Better late than never.
19. The husband is the brain, = the=20 wife--the soul.
20. No use reproaching the mirror if your mug is=20 crooked.
21. No need for riches when there's peace in the = family.
22.=20 Honey on the tongue but ice in the heart.
23. All that glitters is = not=20 gold.
24. An uninvited guest is worse than the Tartar (Mongols who = ruled=20 Russia).
25. Don't spit in the well; the time may come when you may = want a=20 drink.
26. Repetition is the mother of learning.
27. The slower = you drive,=20 the farther you'll get.
28. Every frog brags about his mud hole.

List of Great Holy Days

List of = HOLYDAYS=20

Origins and Migrations of Russian Old = Believers

Clothing

[NOTE: THIS WORK IS IN PROGRESS. MORE TO COME as SOON as POSSIBLE.]=20

=20

Links to = other=20 sites on the Web

Novel -- = Freedom=20 for an Old Believer

=20

Compiled by Paul J. Wigowsky in = 1978
pauljwsky@hotmail.com =20

This page hosted by Get your own Free = Home=20 Page


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