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The Taxing of Souls

by Metropolitan Hierotheos (Vlachos)

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Also related to the foregoing is the teaching of both = Holy=20 Scripture and the holy Fathers about the taxing of souls. At = this=20 point we shall examine the subject thoroughly, as it has a = bearing=20 on the terrible mystery of death. We find this topic in the = whole=20 biblico-patristic tradition and it corresponds to a reality = which we=20 need to look at in order to prepare ourselves for the = dreadful hour=20 of death. What follows is written not in order to arouse = anxiety,=20 but to prompt repentance, which has joy as its result. For = he who=20 has the gift of the Holy Spirit and is united with Christ = avoids the=20 terrible presence and activity of the customs demons.

According to the teaching of the Fathers of the Church, = the soul=20 at its departure from the body, as well as when it is = preparing to=20 leave, senses the presence of the demons who are called = customs=20 demons, and is possessed with fear because of having to pass = through=20 customs.

Of course we must say from the start that the customs = demons have=20 no sovereignty over the righteous, those who have united = with=20 Christ. The righteous not only will not go through = "customs-houses",=20 but they will also not be in fear of that. We shall see all = this=20 better when we compare the teaching of the Fathers. The=20 characterisation of the soul's passage through the demons as = customs=20 is taken from the tax collectors of that time. We may look = briefly=20 at this subject in order to understand why the Fathers = characterise=20 the soul's passage through the demons as customs.

In ancient times the name of tax gatherer was given to = those who=20 purchased the public taxes from the State and then collected = them=20 from the people" [48]. The tax gatherers were divided into = two=20 classes. The first class comprised the so-called "publicans=20 ('confiscators') or tithe collectors", who were the = wealthiest class=20 and the force of authority, and the second comprised the = "tax=20 collectors". The publicans were the general public = collectors, who=20 had bought the taxes from the State, while the tax = collectors were=20 their salaried servants, who collected the taxes from the = people and=20 gave them to the publicans.

The tax collectors were unjust because they collected = larger=20 taxes than had to be paid to their masters. That is why they = had a=20 very bad reputation in ancient communities. Plato said that = the tax=20 collectors were oppressive, not so much when they collected = duties=20 from the visible imports, "but when in looking for what was = hidden=20 they meddled in other people's equipment and freight". = Therefore=20 when Theocritus was asked what were the fiercest beasts, he=20 answered: "in the mountains, bears and lions, and in the = cities, tax=20 collectors and sycophants".

The tax collectors, in their effort to collect as many = taxes as=20 they could=E2=80=94and especially in order not to let some = people escape who=20 could not accept the very heavy and unjust = tax=E2=80=94contrived various=20 means: they would lie in wait in narrow roads and seize = passers-by,=20 forcing them to give what they owed. It was very unpleasant = and=20 odious to the people of that time.

It is just this familiar and odious image which the = Fathers used=20 in order to give the people of that time an understanding of = the=20 terrible mystery of death and of the terrible things that = unfold=20 when the soul is being prepared for departure, especially = when it is=20 leaving the body. St. Macarius of Egypt would say = expressively:=20 "Like the tax collectors who sit in the narrow roads and = seize the=20 passers-by and the oppressed, so also the demons watch = carefully and=20 grab hold of souls. And when they pass out of the body, if = they are=20 not completely purified, they are not permitted to go up = into the=20 mansions of Heaven there to meet their Master. For they are = driven=20 down by the demons of the air" [49].

The image of the tax collectors certainly belongs to the = reality=20 of that time. But the teaching that the demons try to seize = a man's=20 soul at its departure is mentioned in many texts of Holy = Scripture=20 and of the Fathers of the Church. We have already seen that = after=20 death the souls of the righteous are received by the angels = and the=20 souls of sinners and the unrepentant are received by the = demons.=20 With the malice which all the demons have against men, they = would=20 like to dominate everyone and have them in their power for = ever. But=20 they cannot have authority over the righteous.

A basic passage which the Fathers of the Church interpret = as=20 referring to the customs demons is what Christ said shortly = before=20 His Passion: "for the ruler of this world is coming, and he = has=20 nothing in me" (John 14, 30). The ruler of this world is the = devil.=20 He is called the ruler of the world not because he is really = the=20 ruler and final authority in the whole world, but because he = dominates the world of the unjust. Christ declares that the = devil=20 has no authority over Him. He is surely referring here to = the devil=20 and death.

St. Paul, referring to the spiritually dead who were = deprived of=20 the grace of God, writes: "And you He made alive, who were = dead in=20 trespasses and sins, in which you once walked according to = the ways=20 of this world, according to the prince of the power of the = air, the=20 spirit who is now at work in the sons of disobedience" (Eph. = 2,=20 1-2). This passage indicates that men are deadened by sins = and the=20 work of the devil.

Likewise the devil is characterised as the prince of the = power of=20 the air because he is in the atmosphere and is constantly = waging war=20 on men. It is precisely this image which the Fathers have in = view,=20 saying that when the soul leaves the body and passes through = the air=20 towards heaven, it meets the ruler of the air. The passage = also=20 mentions that this ruler is working now too in the sons of=20 disobedience.

There are many passages in the Old Testament which the = Fathers=20 use to indicate what is called the souls' payment of customs = duties.=20 I should like to mention two of them. One comes from a psalm = of=20 David in which the Prophet King speaks to God and says: "0 = Lord my=20 God, in you I put my trust; save me from all those who = persecute me;=20 and deliver me, lest they tear me like a lion and rip me to = pieces,=20 with no one to rescue me" (Psalm 7, 1-2). The other passage = is in=20 the book of the Prophet Jeremiah, where it says: "there = seemed to be=20 a fire burning in my bones; I was wearied and could not = endure, for=20 I heard many mocking me on every side" (Jer. 20, 9-10).

Now that we have quoted the most basic passages = interpreted by=20 the Fathers, we shall go on to their teaching about the = "taxing" of=20 souls. We should say that we will first compare their = teaching about=20 the taxing and then speak of the mystical interpretation of = this=20 condition. As will be seen more clearly in what follows, the = souls=20 of the righteous are not in fear, since they have the grace = of God,=20 and the demons have no power over them. The souls of the = unrepentant=20 are in anguish, being subject to the influence of the demons = and to=20 the action of the passions as well. There are demons, but = the=20 customs payment also means the action of the passions. We = should=20 never forget this point, because to be unaware of it creates = false=20 conceptions. The reader of this chapter must be particularly = careful=20 in studying the patristic teaching.

St. Basil the Great, interpreting the passage from the = Psalms:=20 "save me from all those who persecute me; and deliver me, = lest they=20 tear my soul like a lion" (Psalm 7, 2-3), says that the = brave men=20 who have struggled throughout their lives against the = invisible=20 enemy, towards the end of their lives "will be searched by = the ruler=20 of the age" in order to hold them captive if they are found = to have=20 wounds or stigmata or imprints of sins. But if they are = found=20 uninjured and unstained, then "as they are invincible and = free,=20 Christ will give them rest". Therefore he who is under the = power of=20 death, since he knows that "One is He who saves, One is He = who=20 redeems", cries out to Christ the Saviour: "deliver me in = that time=20 of searching, lest they tear my soul like a lion". And = Christ, since=20 he was free of sin, said: "now the ruler of this world is = coming and=20 he will have nothing in me"; for man, however, it is enough = to say=20 that the ruler of the world is coming and he will have "few = and=20 small things" in me" [50].

The hour of death is terrible because then the person = recalls his=20 sins, but also because he sees frightening things. St. John=20 Chrysostom bears witness that there are many men who recount = terrible visions, which the departing one cannot repel. They = are so=20 terrible that "his very bed shakes violently, and he gazes = in fear=20 at the bystanders".

That is to say, his very body is shaken by his soul's = fear, and=20 he makes many disturbed movements. St. John Chrysostom adds = that if=20 we are frightened by the sight of terrible men, how much = more=20 frightened we will be when at the departure of our soul from = the=20 body we see "angels threatening us and stern powers". The = soul which=20 is parted from the body wails uselessly, in vain [51].

St. Symeon the New Theologian speaks about this, = emphasising=20 especially that he who has God's Light conquers the demons = that come=20 near him, for the demons are burnt by the divine Light. This = is the=20 case even now, as far as the person is in the vision of God = and is=20 clothed in God's Light. It will be much more the case when a = person's soul is leaving his body. St. Symeon says that the=20 Christian has no benefit from the spiritual struggle which = he is=20 going through if the devil is not set ablaze by the Light of = God.=20 And this means that the essence and aim of the spiritual = life is to=20 be united with the Light. St. Symeon writes:

"If the prince of darkness, when he comes, does not see = Thy glory=20 accompanying me and is not utterly confounded=E2=80=94he, = the darkness,=20 consumed by Thy inaccessible Light=E2=80=94and if all the = hostile powers=20 with him do not flee on seeing the mark of Thy seal, while I = pass=20 through, trusting in Thy grace perfectly intrepid, and = approach Thee=20 and bow down what is the use of that which is going on in me = now?"=20 [52].

The demons that want to seize a person's soul even at the = last=20 moment are characterised by St. Diadochos of Photike as = tartar=20 rulers, that is to say, rulers of hades. A person who loves = God will=20 not be in fear, for love casts out fear, and he will freely=20 outdistance "the tartar rulers". The soul of a man who = rejoices in=20 the love of God, at the hour of death, "is lifted with the = angels of=20 peace above all the hosts of darkness" [53].

Thus the holy Fathers are not satisfied just to emphasise = the=20 existence of the demons and their aggressive rage against = men, but=20 they also emphasise the way in which we can escape their = threats. By=20 confessing his sins completely a person is released from = cowardice=20 and fear, is filled with the love of Christ, and so he is = freed from=20 the evils of the demons. The devil has no power over = him.

Abba Isaiah calls the demons which approach the soul when = it is=20 leaving the body "rulers of darkness" and "rulers of evil". = He=20 teaches that when a man's soul leaves his body, the angels = travel=20 with it. But then the powers of darkness also go out to meet = it and=20 to dominate it. At that moment the angels do not fight with = the=20 demons but wall the person round with the good deeds that he = has=20 done. When the person has conquered the demons because of = the good=20 deeds which he has done in his life, then "the Angels will = rejoice=20 with him when they see him, freed from the powers of = darkness". That=20 is why Abba Isaiah exhorts us to love peace, to have love = towards=20 men, to think of God and His righteousness, to ignore need = for the=20 world and its honour, and so forth [54].

The Sayings of the Desert Fathers contain the teaching of = Theophilos the Archbishop on the subject we are dealing = with. He=20 says that at the time of departure a court case takes place = between=20 the angels and the demons. The demons present "all the sins=20 committed either deliberately or through ignorance from = birth to=20 this last hour", and they make accusation against the = person.=20 Likewise the angels bring up the good deeds which the soul = of the=20 particular person has done. Then the soul under judgement is = in=20 great fear. If the demons win, it hears the words: "Take = away the=20 ungodly soul, that it may not see the glory of God". But if = it comes=20 out the victor and is given freedom, the demons are put to = shame and=20 the angels receive the soul and guide it "into that = unspeakable joy=20 and glory" [55].

We find these views in many patristic texts. Hesychios = the Priest=20 prays that when the ruler of darkness comes, he may find our = misdeeds few and petty [56]. He teaches that when the soul = has=20 Christ with it, "He will speedily avenge it" [57].

Likewise St. Theognostos says that the righteous soul = rises to=20 heaven, going in peace "to meet the radiant and joyful angel = that=20 comes down for it and travelling with him unimpeded through = the air,=20 totally unharmed by the evil spirits" [58].

The holy Fathers teach all these things not from their=20 imagination, but from enlightening experiences. Sometimes = other holy=20 men have revealed these things to them, and at other times = they=20 themselves, illumined by God, have had such frightening=20 experiences.

Antony the Great once reached the point of personally = seeing such=20 dreadful things. In his cell he went into rapture and then = saw=20 himself go out of his body and walk in the air, obviously = led by=20 angels. Some bitter and terrible demons prevented them from=20 ascending to heaven and sought a reason for several deeds. = Then=20 those leading Antony the Great fought with the terrible = demons,=20 saying that God had forgiven him all his deeds from his = birth and=20 that they should accuse him only of what he had done from = the moment=20 when he became a monk. "Then when they had accused him and = not=20 proven him wrong, his way became free and unhindered" = [59].

In a dreadful story of Antony the Great the following is = told:=20 During the night a voice wakened him and urged him to go out = of his=20 cell and look. Then in fact he saw someone "tall, without = bodily=20 form and dreadful", who was the devil, standing straight = with his=20 hands raised, preventing some from ascending by keeping hold = of=20 them, and gnashing his teeth at others because they had = escaped and=20 were ascending to heaven. It was revealed to Antony the = Great that=20 this dreadful spectacle was "the passage of souls" [60].

St. John of the Ladder describes a terrible spectacle = seen by the=20 hermit Stephen, who was an ascetic on Mt. Sinai, near the = cave of=20 the Prophet Elijah. On the day before his death, while his = eyes were=20 open, he went into ecstasy and began to took to the right = and left=20 of his bed. Those present heard him answering as if he were = being=20 interrogated. Sometimes he said: "Of course it is true. That = was why=20 I fasted for so many years". Or again: "Yes, that is = correct, but I=20 wept and served my brothers". Or again: "No. You are = accusing me=20 falsely. "Or sometimes: "Quite right. No, I have no excuse. = But God=20 is merciful". And St. John of the Ladder adds that "this = unseen and=20 relentless interrogation was a truly awful and frightening=20 spectacle". Worst of all was the fact that they accused him = of=20 things which he had not done" [61].

From what we have cited it seems that the whole tradition = of the=20 Church speaks of the existence of the customs demons, the = spirits in=20 the air, which fight a man with hatred and evils not only = throughout=20 his life, but especially before and after his soul's = departure from=20 the body.

In the tradition of the Church, however, it is seen = clearly, that=20 the demons have no mastery over the men of God, because = those who=20 have put on God do not go through such a martyrdom. If the = ruler of=20 the world has no power over Christ, this is also true of = those men=20 who are united with Him. This is why the Fathers advise us = to live=20 within the Church, with repentance, confession and spiritual = works,=20 that we live and die in the Church with the orthodox faith = and the=20 prayers of our Fathers, so that the ruler of darkness and = the=20 spirits of evil may not have power over us.

In any case it is a fact that during the soul's departure = from=20 the body a great battle goes on, chiefly in people who have=20 insufficient purification. The terrible thing is that many = people in=20 our time die without being aware of the shocking hour of = death. That=20 is to say, the illnesses of our time, as well as the = powerful=20 pharmaceutical culture, distort man's psychosomatic = constitution and=20 make it difficult for him to go through these crucial hours = with=20 fitting attention, fear of God and prayer. Of course = medicines do=20 help us not to feel the pain of our illnesses, but they also = alter=20 our whole psychosomatic constitution; they do not allow us = to=20 realise what is going on and to seek God's mercy.

These hours are very crucial. This is why all who fear = God and=20 have spiritual knowledge of the crucial moments pray to be = made=20 aware of the events of that time. It is a real opportunity = for the=20 person to repent of all that he has committed, to seek God's = mercy.=20 To be watchful at this frightful hour is the most important = work.=20 That is why the Church prays for God to deliver us from = "sudden=20 death".

But we must look at the existence of the customs houses = from two=20 sides. One side is the demons' malice and the other is the = existence=20 of passions. In the patristic teaching we find that there is = also=20 another interpretation of the customs houses. Without, of = course,=20 overlooking the teaching about the existence of the rulers = of=20 darkness and the spirits of evil, I would also like us at = this point=20 to turn our attention to the mystical teaching of the = Fathers of the=20 Church about the customs-houses.

We also said before that when a person's soul is about to = leave=20 the body, the memory of the sins which he has committed in = his life=20 comes back to him. It is a truly intolerable state. St. John = Chrysostom speaks of it. He says that on the last day of a = person's=20 biological life "sins contort his soul", they stir up his = soul. This=20 refers to passions which "move up from below the heart" = [62]. The=20 passions seek satisfaction, but the person cannot respond. = It is a=20 terrible state.

This insatiable desire of the soul is intensified even = further=20 when the soul is separated from the body. St. Gregory of = Nyssa=20 attributes this kind of interpretation to his sister = Macrina. He=20 says that as it happens with people who have remained in = filthy=20 places for a long period of time, that they are not released = from=20 the odiousness of the dirt even if they live in clean air=20 afterwards, the same happens to the soul when it parts from = the=20 body. Lovers of the flesh, even if they have turned to the=20 incorporeal and refined life, are unable to free themselves = from the=20 carnal odour. Precisely then the soul becomes more = materalised and=20 in that way "they are in great distress". St. Gregory adds = that if=20 what some people say is true, that the shadowy shapes of the = departed are seen in the vicinity of the graves, this is an=20 indication that the soul does not want to be parted from the = life of=20 the flesh even after it has left the body. The parable of = the Rich=20 Man and Lazarus, in which the Rich Man, finding himself in = Hades,=20 seems to be thinking about his relatives, indicates that the = souls=20 of lovers of the flesh really cannot part from the passions = which=20 constitute the carnal life [63].

We know from the Orthodox Tradition that there are = passions of=20 the body and passions of the soul. Since there is unity = between soul=20 and body, there is also a relationship between the passions = of soul=20 and body. The passions of the soul work through the bodily = senses.=20 When the soul is released from the body, it cannot satisfy = its=20 passions. Ungratified passions produce intolerable pain and = a=20 suffocating condition. They stifle the soul. This is the = real hell=20 and a frightful affliction. For this reason the holy Fathers = advise=20 us to cleanse our souls from the passions while we are in = the=20 present life, so that the soul may be released and freed = after its=20 departure. It should be satisfied and attracted to God = Himself.

There is also another problem for the soul after its = departure=20 from the body. St. Gregory of Nyssa teaches that all nature = is=20 attracted to what is like it, to its relatives. So too the = soul is=20 drawn towards the divine and is related to it, since man is = related=20 to God and contains within himself copies of the archetype. = After=20 leaving the body, the soul is light, without any bodily = pain, and=20 therefore it is easy and pleasant to proceed towards what = attracts=20 it, towards God. But if the soul is held down by material = habits and=20 by the nails of the passions, then it undergoes suffering in = the way=20 in which the body suffers during earthquakes, when it is not = only=20 crushed by the weight of the earth but can also be pierced = by=20 various pointed objects which are in the earth [64].

It is just this which constitutes the torment of the = soul. It=20 experiences a dreadful bifurcation, we could say. On the one = hand,=20 it wants to ascend towards God and unite with Him, since it = is His=20 image. On the other hand it is impeded by the passions which = riddle,=20 press and torment it. And this view is one part of the=20 interpretation of the holy Fathers concerning the customs=20 houses.

The torment of a soul which is parted from the body is = described=20 in a wonderful and realistic way by Abba Dorotheos. He says = that=20 during this life the soul is comforted through being = distracted by=20 the passions. It can feel great sorrow and dreadful pain, = but by=20 means of the body and the passions it can take comfort and = ease its=20 pain. In such a melancholic and frightful state the person = "is fed,=20 drinks, sleeps, meets and associates with friends", that is = to say=20 he is entertained by persons dear to him. Thus he is = comforted in=20 part and can more easily forget the deepest problem which = worries=20 him. But when the soul leaves the body, "it is alone with = its own=20 passions and, in short, is always tormented by them". At = this time=20 the soul is burning with the annoyance of the passions, it = is=20 distracted by them and cannot be mindful of God. This is a = real=20 tragedy, for at this time, because there is no body either, = it=20 cannot feel even the slightest comfort.

In what follows Abba Dorotheos takes an astonishing = example.=20 Suppose someone was shut up in a dark cell with no food or = drink for=20 three days without sleeping or meeting anyone, or = psalmodising, or=20 praying, or thinking of God at all. Then he would know "what = the=20 passions do to him". Actually in such a situation the soul = and the=20 whole man is infuriated. We are assured of this by various = people=20 who experience the agony of places of torture and frightful=20 imprisonment. If this is the case even while the soul is = linked with=20 the body, how much more so when it has left the body and is = isolated=20 with its passions.

Abba Dorotheos also makes use of the image of the sick = person=20 with a burning fever. This of course creates many other = problems as=20 well, especially if the person has a melancholic and = ill-tempered=20 body. The same thing happens with the impassioned soul. "The = conflict arising from its own bad habits punishes it all the = time,=20 the memory being always embittered, the mutterings of its = passions=20 constantly emerging, always burning it and enraging it". If = one adds=20 to this torment and suffering of the soul the terrible = places of=20 Hell and the demons and the fire and the darkness, and so = forth,=20 then one can understand the suffering and torment of the = soul after=20 its departure and its sojourn in Hades and Hell".

The things that we have said so far show just what those = customs=20 houses are that are spoken of in the patristic texts. On the = one=20 hand, they are the passions of the soul which, because of = the=20 non-existence of the body, cannot be satisfied, and = therefore stifle=20 the soul. On the other hand, they are the evil demons which = have=20 gained mastery over passionate people, and it is natural = that after=20 the soul's departure they have greater mastery over them. = The=20 righteous people, who during their lives have purified their = souls=20 and bodies from passions of the soul and body and have been = clothed=20 in the pledge of the Spirit and united with God, escape the = power of=20 the customs houses, since the demons have no power over = them. The=20 souls of the righteous are led, free and undistracted, = towards God,=20 with whom they are united.

So the whole problem is not to be afraid of the customs = demons,=20 but as long as we live, to cure our soul and our whole being = of=20 passions, to partake of the uncreated grace of God, so that = the=20 departure of our soul from our body may be a matter of joy = and=20 delight.

Of course there are some who maintain that such notions = as=20 customs houses and aerial spirits have come into = Christianity from=20 Gnostic theories and pagan myths which prevailed during that = period.

There is no doubt that such views can be found in many = Gnostic=20 texts, in pagan ideas which are found in Egyptian and = Chaldaean=20 myths. However it must be emphasised that many Fathers = adopted the=20 teaching about customs houses, but they cleared it of = idolatrous and=20 Gnostic frames of reference and placed it in the = ecclesiastical=20 atmosphere. The holy Fathers were not afraid to do such = creative=20 work.

It is a fact that the Fathers were working creatively and = productively when they took many views and theories from the = pagan=20 world, but gave them an ecclesiastical content. It is well = known=20 that the Fathers took the teaching about the immortality of = the=20 soul, about the ecstasy of man and the dispassion of the = soul and=20 body, the teaching about the tripartite soul and many other = things=20 from the ancient philosophies, as well as from ancient = traditions,=20 but clearly they gave them another content and a different=20 perspective. We cannot discard the teaching about the = immortality of=20 the soul just because the ancient philosophers spoke of it. = We must=20 look at the content which the holy Fathers gave to it.

Therefore what happened to other topics happened also to = the=20 subject of the customs houses. It is true that ancient = traditions=20 and heretical views spoke of "rulers of the astral sphere", = about=20 "gates of an astral journey", about "aerial spirits", and so = forth.=20 We find several of these phrases in the Bible and in = patristic=20 texts. As we have mentioned in this chapter, many Fathers of = the=20 Church speak of customs houses and aerial spirits, but they = have=20 given them different content and different meanings. The = patristic=20 teaching about customs houses must be interpreted within the = following four points.

First. The symbolic language of the Bible requires the = necessary=20 interpretation. Anyone who only keeps to the images used = distorts=20 the Gospel message. For instance, we must say that words in = the=20 Bible can be misinterpreted if we only look at their = theological=20 meaning. The same thing is true in the case of the customs = houses.=20 We should not be thinking only of today's customs houses, = through=20 which everyone has to pass at the national borders. The = symbolic=20 image is intended to present something, but it must be = interpreted=20 in an orthodox way.

Second. There are demons, which are dark angels. They are = persons=20 and therefore have freedom, and with God's permission, but = also=20 through the wrong use of freedom by man, they have been able = to=20 dominate him. That is to say, after the soul's departure = from the=20 body, the demons demand to possess a soul which they have = mastered=20 because of its unrepentance. In Christ's well-known parable = about=20 the foolish rich man there is the sentence: "Fool! This = night your=20 soul will be required of you; then whose will those things = be which=20 you have provided?". According to the patristic = interpretation it is=20 the demons who demand possession of the soul of the foolish = rich man=20 after its departure from the body.

Third. The demons have no authority over the men of God. = All who=20 are united with God and have within their soul and heart the = uncreated energy of God are outside the control of the = demons. So=20 the deified will not go through the so-called customs = houses.

Fourth. According to the teaching of the Fathers, as we = have seen=20 before, the demons, which are real spirits, act by means of = the=20 passions. The fact that the passions cannot be gratified = after the=20 soul's departure from the body is a suffocation of the = soul.

When we examine the customs houses in these theological = frames,=20 the use of this teaching is not inappropriate. But if we = have other=20 conceptions, we are on the wrong path.

Endnotes

48. See extended analysis in G. Konstantinou: Dictionary = of holy=20 Scriptures, ed. Grigori, op. 966 (Gk).

49. Macarius of Egypt: Homily 43, 9, CWS p. 222.

50. Basil the Great: Homily on Psalm 7, 2. PG 29, 232B, = D.

51. John Chrysostom: Homily 44 on Matthew, EPE 11, p. 170 = (Gk).

52. SC 174, p. 310.

53. Diadochus of Photiki: On spiritual knowledge, 100, = Philokalia=20 1, p. 295.

54. Evergetinos, op. cit. p. 101f.55. Ibid. p. 102f.

56. Hesychios: On watchfulness and holiness 161, Philok. = 1, p.=20 190.

57. Ibid 149, p. 188.

58. Theognostos: On the practice of the virtues 61, = Philok. 2,=20 p.

59. Evergetinos, op.,cit. p. 99.

60. Ibid. p. 100.

61. John of the Ladder: Step 7, CWS p. 142.

62. John Chrysostom: Homily 44 on Matthew, EPE 11, p. 168 = (Gk).

63. Gregory of Nyssa: On the Soul and the Resurrection, = Ch. 6,=20 SVS p. 76.

64. Ibid. p. 83.

65. Dorotheos: Discourse 12, Fear of punishment, CS 33, = p.=20 183f.

From Life After Death, by = Metropolitan=20 Hierotheos of Nafpaktos, trans. Esther Williams (Levadia, = Greece:=20 Birth of the Theotokos Monastery, 1995), pp. 62-80.

Webmaster Note

The charge of "Gnosticism" is exactly what is leveled = against=20 those Orthodox writers today who faithfully uphold the = tradition of=20 the aerial toll-houses. It would be one thing for a = Protestant=20 critic to level such an accusation; but for Orthodox to make = the=20 same claims is truly sorrowful. What follows is an extended = quote=20 from The Hellenic-Christian Philosophical Tradition, = by Dr. Constantive Cavarnos (Belmont, MA: = Institute for=20 Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 1989), pp. 17-21. The = quote=20 within this passage is from St. Basil's To Young Men, on = How=20 They Might Profit from Greek Literature, sect. IV and = V; cf. 1=20 Thess. 5:21. I have included this here to demonstrate, in = relation=20 to another theological topic, the spurious nature of these=20 accusations. For further insight into this see "Answer to a=20 Critic," by Fr. Seraphim of Platina.

The presence of Platonic notions and terms is so = noticeable in=20 the writings of Gregory of Nyssa, a brother of St. Basil, = that he=20 has been called by some a "Christian Platonist." Two later = Church=20 Fathers=E2=80=94John Damascene, who flourished during the = first half of=20 the eighth century, and Photios the Great, who lived in = the next=20 century=E2=80=94have been characterized by some as = "Christian=20 Aristotelians." This has been occasioned by the fact that = both=20 wrote substantial chapters on the Categories and the = Predicables=20 of Aristotle. But a careful reading of the whole body of = their=20 works shows that they made much greater use of = Plato=E2=80=99s=20 writings than of Aristotle=E2=80=99s, particularly in = their discussions of=20 God and the human soul. With regard to Photios, it is very = significant that in his Lexicon of ancient Greek words, = entitled=20 Lexeon Synagoge, there are far more references to = Plato=20 than to Aristotle. In listing words used by Plato, Photios = often=20 names the Platonic works in which they appear. He mentions = altogether fifteen dialogues.

Moreover, in one place he speaks of Plato as "great" = (ho=20 megas Platon), but he nowhere uses this highly = honorific word=20 for Aristotle. On the basis of such internal evidence, = there would=20 seem to be a justification for calling Damascene and = Photios=20 "Platonists," rather than "Aristotelians." Actually, the = use of=20 either of these terms for them is inappropriate, a serious = error,=20 as it is when applied to Justin Martyr, Basil the Great, = Gregory=20 of Nyssa, or any other of the Greek Church Fathers. For = the=20 foundation of their thought is neither Platonism nor=20 Aristotelianism, nor some other secular system of thought, = but is=20 Christian revelation. This very important fact is noted = frequently=20 by the Greek Fathers from the earliest to the latest. Thus = the=20 fourteenth century Father Gregory Palamas, Archbishop of=20 Thessaloniki, says: "Whence did we learn about God, whence = about=20 the universe, whence about ourselves something certain and = free of=20 error? Is it not from the teaching of the Spirit?"

The adoption of certain notions and terms from Plato,=20 Aristotle, and other pagan writers does not make the Greek = Church=20 Fathers adherents of such writers. They would have had no=20 objection to being called simply "philosophers." For they = call=20 Christianity "philosophy," "the divine philosophy," and=20 characterize serious reflection on some problem or topic, = such as=20 those they engaged in, "philosophizing." But none of them = called=20 himself or any other of their learned Christian = predecessors a=20 "Platonist," an "Aristotelian," a "Christian Platonist," = or a=20 "Christian Aristotelian." Such characterizations were for = them=20 unthinkable. They were unthinkable because they would have = been=20 untrue, for the foundation of their thought was, as we = have noted,=20 neither Platonic nor Aristotelian, but Christian. Although = they=20 did use many elements from Plato and Aristotle, they chose = those=20 elements that did not contradict revealed teaching, but = were in=20 harmony with it and helped express or illustrate its = content. In=20 other words, their use of pagan philosophy was not a = wholesale,=20 slavish one. It was a very selective or "eclectic" use, = which left=20 them quite free to criticize the errors of secular = philosophy.=20 Material for this eclecticism was provided for them not = only by=20 the writings of Plato and Aristotle, but also by those of = the=20 Stoics and other Greek philosophers and, further, by = ancient Greek=20 poets, historians, and orators. The following remark by = St. Basil=20 is very illuminating in this connection: "Since it is = through=20 virtue that we must enter upon this life of ours, and = since much=20 has been uttered in praise of virtue by poets, much by = historians,=20 and much more still by philosophers, we ought especially = to apply=20 ourselves to such literature."

The guiding principle for this eclecticism was put = forth by=20 Basil and used by the other Christian = philosopher-theologians or=20 Church Fathers of the East. Basil advised: Take from = heathen books=20 whatever befits the Christian and is allied to the truth, = and pass=20 over the rest. The model to be used is the bee. = "Altogether after=20 the manner bees," says Basil, "must we use these writings, = for the=20 bees do not visit all the flowers without discrimination = nor=20 indeed do they carry away entire those upon which they = light, but=20 rather, having taken so much as is adapted to their needs, = they=20 let the rest go." . . .

One reason why the Greek Fathers selected and adapted = such=20 elements was because they found them very helpful for = formulating=20 in clear and precise form the content of the Christian = faith.=20 Another reason was the fact that the use of philosophical = terms=20 and concepts would attract to the faith the more educated = among=20 the pagans=E2=80=94those who had received instruction in = philosophy. For=20 these reasons, too, they chose as their language not the = common=20 Greek, the koine, but Attic Greek, using as their models=20 particularly such great masters of Attic prose as Plato,=20 Aristotle, Demosthenes, and Thucydides. From Plato, they = took many=20 philosophical elements, modified them to a greater or = lesser=20 extent, and assimilated them organically in the Christian=20 teaching.

 
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