From: Subject: Two Thousand Year Old Date: Fri, 13 Jul 2007 23:05:41 -0500 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.holytrinitymission.org/books/english/apostolic_christianity_s_kovasevich.htm X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.3138 Two Thousand Year Old

Apostolic Christianity

and

the 23,000 Western=20 Churches

 

Steven = Kovacevich

 

Contents

1.=20 Survey Of Church History: The Beginnings.

2.=20 Byzantium and the Church of the Seven Councils.

3.=20 Byzantium and the Church of the Seven Councils (Continuation).

4.=20 The Holy Icons.

5.=20 Saints, Monks and Emperors.

6.=20 The Great Schism.

7.=20 Survey of Doctrine: Holy Tradition.

8.=20 God and Man.

9.=20 Man: His Creation, Vocation and Failure.

10.=20 The Church of God.

11.=20 Orthodox Worship.

Epilogue.

 

 

Foreword.

This book started out as a correspondence course on = Eastern=20 Orthodox Christianity, the ancient faith that the popular Time-Life = series on=20 the great religions of the world calls "Christendom's oldest = Church"=20 [Christendom and Christianity, vol. 3 of The World's Great=20 Religions, New York: Time, Inc., 1963, p. 266]. The author took the = course=20 many years ago after a long and vain search for the fullness of truth = along the=20 highways and byways of Western Christianity, all of which proved = dead-end paths=20 where one encounters truth in varying degrees, plus falsehood in = one=20 concentration or another.

In the passage of time, it became obvious that there = are many=20 Roman Catholic theologians who do not agree with the teachings of the = first and=20 second Vatican Councils, and who are grappling with the problems of = papal=20 primacy, papal infallibility, and Catholic ecclesiology. It also became = apparent=20 that there are many Catholic and Protestant liturgical scholars, clergy = and=20 laity today who are interested in learning about the Orthodox Church and = its=20 maintaining the form of early Christian worship and its Divine Liturgy. = Among=20 these people were friends and co-workers of the author.

Still later, it became increasingly clear that this = work could=20 be turned into a book in question and answer format for these = individuals. In=20 making this change, the author rewrote large sections of it for the = benefit of=20 Western Christians so that they could ask themselves what kind of = historical=20 connection does their particular Church have with the Apostles when it = was=20 founded in schism in 1054 by a fallible man called the pope, or founded = a few=20 centuries ago by someone named Joe Smith? For those with more than an = idle=20 curiosity, the doctrines of the Western Churches are frequently compared = and=20 contrasted with those of another much older Church, the Orthodox = Christian=20 Church. This Church is the original Church and the depository of = Apostolic=20 Christian Truth, and a Church that until recently remained something = mysterious=20 and inaccessible for Western people.

Although this study does not force anyone to accept = the=20 Orthodox faith, still every truth-seeking person who read it came to the = ineluctable conclusion that alone among the Churches, the Orthodox = Church has=20 retained the continuity and purity of ancient Christian teaching and = preserves=20 the oldest, fullest and most accurate traditions of all. The same = readers also=20 came to understand that the ancient Church founded by Christ through the = Apostles is still present in the world today, just as it has been = without=20 interruption for two thousand years. They now understand that that = ancient=20 Church is the Orthodox Church, the Church of the Apostles and martyrs, = and the=20 only Church that has an unbroken line back to the Apostles. With this = insight,=20 all went on with their lives with a new clarity of thought, like a pure = mountain=20 spring.

As the pages of this book show, the Orthodox Church = has=20 maintained a living connection with the Apostles through Apostolic = Succession.=20 The Apostles chose as their successors bishops for local congregations = (Phil=20 1:1). To these bishops, they imparted the Apostolic grace they had = received from=20 Christ Himself, which is the process of Apostolic Succession, something=20 prominently discussed in the New Testament (cf. Titus and 1 and 2 = Timothy).

There is a twofold nature to Apostolic Succession. = First, there=20 is an unbroken historical consecration of the bishops from the hands of = the=20 Apostles. A bishop must be able to trace his lineage through a = continuous,=20 uninterrupted chain of ordinations through the Apostles. Secondly, there = is an=20 uncompromising fidelity to the correct doctrines and correct practices=20 established by the Apostles. A bishop must be able to demonstrate that = the faith=20 and practices of the Church have not changed.

While the Roman Catholic Church can trace its = bishops' lineage,=20 it cannot demonstrate an unchanged faith or unchanged practices, for it = does not=20 adhere to the Apostolic teaching or Apostolic practices. After the Latin = Church=20 severed itself from the true Universal Church in 1054, the West entered = into the=20 Middle Ages, which marked the gradual transition between the ancient = Christian=20 worldview and the modern godless one. During that period, and continuing = into=20 the present time, the Latin Church made many deviations and=20 changes from the ancient Christian faith and ancient Christian = practices=20 going back to the time of the Apostles.

One of Rome's many innovations without Apostolic=20 foundation is its proclamation of papal infallibility, a doctrine = that=20 caused the Christian world to reel in shock. According to this teaching, = when=20 the pope speaks ex cathedra ("from the throne" [of Peter]), that = is,=20 officially, concerning matters of faith and morals, he is = incapable of=20 speaking falsehood. However, papal infallibility was = vehemently denied=20 by popes and faithful laymen alike for almost nineteen centuries. = (It was=20 not invented until 1870). Moreover, as chapter six of this book notes, = papal=20 infallibility continues to be denied by the very Church that invented = it. It=20 is an indisputable fact that many Roman popes were heretics and that = they spoke=20 falsehood when making ex cathedra pronouncements = concerning faith=20 and morals. The Roman Catholic Church itself admits this fact, = and in=20 this admission, it altogether negates this false teaching. (To = this time,=20 papal infallibility is denied in the Catholic Church. For example, = according to=20 an in-depth survey by the National Catholic Reporter dated = September 11,=20 1987, only 26% of Roman Catholics in this country believe in the = infallibility=20 of the pope).

Of further note, while Roman apologists make much of = the=20 Apostle Peter's supposedly exalted position, Holy Scripture makes it = plain that=20 Peter himself made grave errors both before and after Christ's death and = Resurrection. The second chapter of Galatians shows that Peter spoke=20 falsehood at the Apostolic Council held at Jerusalem, that he had = to=20 justify his actions before the Church, that Paul rebuked Peter "to his = face"=20 sternly and publicly, and that as a result, Peter turned from his = erring=20 ways. Clearly, there is neither "papal supremacy" nor "papal = infallibility"=20 here. Given the fact that Peter, who the Latin Church proclaims was its = first=20 pope, spoke falsehood at the Apostolic Council, Rome's argument of papal = infallibility collapses. As chapter six additionally goes on to = point=20 out, the Roman Catholic Church is presently involved in a frenzied = effort=20 to explain its fraudulent papal claims in the face of a growing = awareness among=20 its clergy and laity that these claims are impossible to=20 defend.

Some years back, a Catholic seminarian struggled with = Rome's=20 papal claims. When he asked the seminary's rector if Rome's claims were = valid,=20 the rector replied that they were not. The seminarian then asked that, = given the=20 fact that the crux of Rome's claim to be the true Church hinged upon the = matter=20 of its papal claims, which of the two Churches actually is the = ancient=20 Church going back two thousand years =97 Rome or Orthodoxy? The rector = replied=20 that when the positions of Rome and Orthodoxy are examined, Rome's claim = is=20 altogether spurious and falsified, while Orthodoxy's claim is entirely = valid. To=20 the seminarian's query as to how the rector could remain in the Catholic = Church=20 if he did not believe it was the true Church, the rector replied that he = was=20 comfortable with his spirituality and that his family expected him to be = Catholic. The seminarian could no longer feel comfortable, however, and = he began=20 a search that eventually brought him to the Orthodox Church and its = priesthood.=20 His conversion is but one of thousands of others like it, for when = exposed to=20 Orthodoxy's ancient teachings, people come to understand that the = Eastern=20 Orthodox Church alone has not distorted or falsified any single doctrine = of the=20 One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church founded by Christ. They also = understand=20 that the same Orthodox Church is that very Church that has maintained = the same=20 exact faith delivered to the Apostles.

There were myriad deviations without Apostolic = foundation that=20 developed in the West over the course of its thousand-year separation = from=20 Orthodoxy. In addition to the doctrinal divergences, there were also = departures=20 from Apostolic practices as well. One of these changes involves the sign = of the=20 Cross, an important practice to examine.

An Orthodox Christian makes the sign of the Cross by = putting=20 the thumb and first and second fingers of the right hand together, which = represent the three Persons of the Holy Trinity. At the same time, the = fourth=20 and fifth fingers are folded against the palm, and these represent the = two=20 natures of Christ. Then, in keeping with the most ancient tradition = of the=20 Holy Apostles and Holy Fathers, he or she touches the tips of the = thumb and=20 first two fingers to the forehead (for the blessing of the mind), and = then the=20 abdomen (for the blessing of one's internal feelings). From = there, the=20 crossbar is made by going from the right shoulder to the left=20 shoulder (for the blessing of one's bodily strength). In this = gesture, one=20 affirms one's faith in Christ's sacrifice on the Cross at Golgotha, and = affirms=20 one's belief in the Holy Trinity and in the human and divine natures of = Christ =97=20 that is, the basic dogmas of the Orthodox Christian faith. In the lives = of the=20 saints from Apostolic times down to the present, there are many = references that=20 bear witness to the tremendous spiritual strength and security that are = given to=20 a Christian through this ancient tradition of crossing oneself.

Making the crossbar from right to left is not = without=20 significance. Classically, the right is the symbol of light, good and = truth,=20 while the left is the symbol of darkness, evil and error. In keeping = with the=20 meaning of this symbolism, going from right to left asks God's blessing = that=20 sanctification from the right side would cross over to the fallen, = sinful side=20 of one's nature in order to transform and redeem it.

Over the course of its long separation from Orthodox=20 Christianity, the Latin Church reversed the direction of the crossbar = and=20 started tracing it from left to right, the significance of which = should=20 be apparent. This practice remains in the Latin Church to this day.

Still another change from the Apostolic practice = involves the=20 Latins no longer touching the abdomen, but the chest = instead (see=20 Archpriest Seraphim Slobodskoy's diagram above). In making this change, = Roman=20 Catholics no longer make the life-giving Cross of Christ upon = themselves, but=20 distort it and seal themselves instead with a travesty of the Cross =97 = that is,=20 an upside down cross. As the same Fr. Seraphim explains in his = book=20 The Law of God, the Catholic sign of the "cross" brings joy to = the=20 demons, for it is a profane gesture.

Apostolic Succession does not exist outside Christ's = Church.=20 According to the first canon of St. Basil, outside the Church the = bestowing of=20 grace is reduced to nothing and every sort of succession is unlawful. = These=20 things are so because a layman (actually even less than a layman) = executes the laying on of hands upon a layman without transferring any = sort of=20 grace to him, because there is none, nor can there be grace outside the = one=20 Church, outside of the unity of the Body of Christ. Once a bishop leaves = the=20 Church in schism as the pope did in the eleventh century, the continuing = Church=20 does not recognize any consecrations or ordinations he performs. = Ordinations are=20 invalid when those ordained do not have the right faith, and there is = neither=20 Apostolic Succession or priesthood. The episcopi vagantes are not = within=20 the succession and can no longer show an uninterrupted priesthood, for = Apostolic=20 Succession was severed in the West as of its apostasy and schism from = Christ's=20 Church in 1054.

Only the Orthodox Church can rightfully claim = continuity in=20 both episcopate and faith, for Orthodoxy has the complete and = preserved=20 Apostolic faith, without any additions or subtractions, and it alone is=20 unchanged from the Apostolic period. Thus, when an Orthodox bishop is=20 consecrated today, or when an Orthodox priest is ordained (from = Apostolic times=20 the priesthood has been the second degree of the hierarchy), that = consecration=20 or ordination can be traced historically all the way back to the = Apostles and=20 back to Christ. The hierarchy was established by Christ, and the = Apostles were=20 always citing its divine institution. The Apostles themselves chose = their=20 successors through ordination, and those successors were the bishops of = the=20 Church. Through Apostolic Succession, the Orthodox Church traces its = existence=20 to Christ and is the one Church founded by Him. As Holy Scripture = states,=20 "one Lord, one faith, one Baptism" (Eph 4:5), = one=20 Holy Tradition (2 Thes 2:15), and one Christian Church (Mt = 16:18). All=20 other Churches =97 that is, the 23,000 Churches of the West, originate = from=20 Orthodox Christianity by way of reduction and separation.

This subject is most serious, for in the Nicene = Creed,=20 Christians confess belief in "One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic = Church."=20 Precisely these four words show the characteristics of the one Church=20 established by Christ and the Apostles. Thus, in addition to being One, = Holy and=20 Catholic (meaning universal), the true Church has an unbroken tie with = the=20 Apostles and is in historic continuity with the Church of the Apostles. = The=20 Apostles are the foundation of the Church, for it is "built upon the = foundation=20 of the Apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the chief = cornerstone"=20 (Eph. 2:20). Calling the Church Apostolic indicates that it was=20 established not on a single bishop, as the Roman Church would = later come=20 to assert (beginning in the ninth century), but upon all the Apostles. = (Contrary=20 to Rome's teaching of papal supremacy, Christ Himself forbade = Peter and=20 the other Apostles to reign or exercise lordship over the flock like the = kings=20 of the Gentiles =97 cf. Lk 22:25). The Orthodox Church is also Apostolic = because=20 it alone has its beginning in Christ, Who is the Apostle and High Priest = of the=20 confession (Heb. 3:11).

In the matter of the teachings of the Christian = Churches,=20 whenever it was necessary to contrast the theology of the Orthodox = Church with=20 Western Christianity's deviations from its former confession of = Orthodox=20 Christianity, these distinctions are presented in an objective, = non-polemical=20 way. The author feels no irritation at all against non-Orthodox = Christians (for=20 he was once one himself), nor does he dispute the piety and good will of = these=20 people. In fact, there is no doubt that most of these individuals are = motivated=20 by a love of God. However, the concern of this study is the correct=20 confession of faith =97 not personal integrity. The reader is = therefore asked=20 not to be offended when, for the sake of truth, contrasts are made = between=20 Orthodoxy's ancient and unchanging teaching, vis-=E0-vis the deviations = of Western=20 Christianity from the faith it held prior to 1054.

It is also important for the reader to understand = that=20 Orthodoxy's claim of being Christ's one and only Church should not be a=20 stumbling block to Western Christians. A Greek archbishop points out = that it=20 should be just the opposite: a point of attraction. He explains that = Orthodoxy=20 does not maintain its claim of primacy out of arrogance, but out of love = for its=20 traditions. Likewise, as a monk notes in this regard, Orthodoxy's = primacy does=20 not stem from any human merit on the part of the Orthodox, but because = God is=20 pleased to preserve His treasure in earthen vessels. The archbishop = further=20 explains that Orthodox Christians do not imagine that they hold = something in=20 their hands which is theirs, but which is universal and the = domain of=20 all who confess Christ. He states that Orthodoxy has maintained the=20 integrity of faith, and that in this ancient Church is found the = fullness of=20 God's grace and truth. Orthodoxy offers that faith in the pure form in = which it=20 was handed down from the Apostles, and its boundaries are open to all = human=20 beings who embrace it.

The reader should also be told that some parts of = this book may=20 seem difficult. In order to obviate difficulties as much as possible, = the writer=20 consistently turned to Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky's Orthodox = Dogmatic=20 Theology. As the preface to the English edition of this invaluable = book=20 notes, this work has become a standard source of Orthodox theology and = has a=20 practical approach that is missing in many works of contemporary = academic=20 theology. As the preface also states, Fr. Michael presents the certain = and=20 unchanging teaching of the Church in a clear and objective manner, with = sober=20 understatement, and thereby eliminates any confusion as to what that = actual=20 teaching is. Other sources were also used when they showed an unadorned=20 directness of presentation, something often lacking in the textbook that = was=20 used for the correspondence theology course that was the basis of this = book. Any=20 further simplification of the answers, though, would have resulted in = distorting=20 and degrading them. If difficulties are encountered in a few places, let = the=20 reader not be discouraged, but continue until the reading becomes = easier. He or=20 she will then gain an understanding of what Western Christianity used = to=20 profess (prior to 1054), and what Eastern Orthodoxy still = professes to=20 this day, since Apostolic times.

The perceptive reader will observe that footnotes are = not=20 always given for cited texts. This shortcoming could not be emended as = the=20 writer no longer has access to many of the books and periodicals whose = contents=20 went into this work. When notes were initially gleaned from reading in=20 monasteries and parish libraries around the country, it was never = imagined that=20 they would eventually be used in a book, and as a result, oftentimes = there was=20 no documentation of sources as would be done in formal research and = composing.=20 Moreover, as this work unfolded, it was not intended for publication, = and thus=20 there was no editor in its early stages to alter, adapt, refine and = otherwise=20 make valuable suggestions in matters of format and style to make the = text better=20 suited for presentation. However, author and title are generally given = so that=20 anyone interested in acquiring the books may do so. For those with a = thirst for=20 more knowledge, most of the books can still be obtained through the = catalogues=20 of the following publishing concerns:

Holy Trinity Monastery,

P.O. Box 36, Jordanville, NY 13361-0036

St. John of Kronstadt Press,

1180 Orthodox Way, Liberty, TN 37095-4366

As noted, the updated version of this book was = written for=20 individuals of the writer's acquaintance. It is especially meant for = those among=20 them who have no knowledge of Orthodoxy's boundless wealth of divinely = revealed=20 teaching and the patristic worldview. Living in a post-Christian = pseudo-culture,=20 modern people are saturated with Hollywood's decadent false values, and=20 saturated with images and information filtered by a radically secular = media bent=20 on programming its audience with an anti-Christian worldview. All people = are=20 constantly exposed to many dangers from Christianity's enemies, who have = been=20 promoting a systematic destruction of Christian practices, and who have = now=20 subverted the entire civilized world that was once fully Christian. It = is hoped=20 that this material can serve to antidote that pagan indoctrination, and = that it=20 can lift the reader's heart above this fallen world so as to live in = expectation=20 of the eternal kingdom.

In presenting this revised redaction to the reader, a = dilemma=20 arose as to whether or not to use "gender neutral" or "inclusive" = language. This=20 concern is common to all modern writers, given the awareness that our = fallen=20 world has dealt some very real injustices to women, and also because = non-sexist=20 language is becoming the preferred standard in the academic and = intellectual=20 world. On the other hand, inclusive language hinders clear writing and=20 communication. It makes for clumsy, cluttered writing that draws = attention to=20 construction and hinders meaning, something that would very much work = against=20 the entire purpose of this work. Moreover, inclusive language eliminates = the=20 possibility of transparency.

To the women readers of this book, you are probably = not the=20 belching, swaggering women who demand to be on top and lord it over men, = or who=20 demand that the Christian Churches revise their doctrines according to = the=20 feminist prescription. In their act of rebellion against God, these = women seek=20 to have God and religion serve their own purposes, and they operate with = the=20 idea that human beings are free to construct their own faith. (This way = of=20 thinking shows the extent to which subjectivism and relativism have been = carried=20 in an age of doctrinal relativity). While these kinds of women are known = to the=20 author and are welcome to read these pages, most who actually read this = material=20 will be those who seek instead to be found worthy to serve God. It is = for these=20 humble women that a note is in order to explain that whenever this book = speaks=20 about God and man, the word man in this context is used in the=20 traditional and general sense of mankind, meaning = humankind, men=20 and women.

Lest the reader dismiss the writer as an obscurantist = for not=20 using the politically correct word human, it has to be pointed = out that=20 the distinction of "exclusive" language is political, not linguistic. = Fr.=20 Patrick Reardon, a convert to Orthodoxy and a scholarly philologist, = notes that=20 in its ordinary and generally understood use among the populace at = large, when=20 the word man is not grammatically or socially contextualized, it = refers=20 to human beings generally and is not used in a sense that excludes = women. Both=20 man and human are derived from the Latin humanus, = which is=20 generic. (Fr. Patrick notes that when this fact is discovered by the = faddish=20 academic world at large, and when the offensive word man is = discovered in=20 human and humanus, academia's thought police might next = insist on=20 expunging the word human from the English language as well).

The same linguistic scholar points out that the use = of=20 man and mankind to designate human beings is completely = and=20 unequivocally proper, and he demonstrates that linguistic tradition is=20 abundantly clear on this point. For example, all the following words = normally=20 mean human beings as such (although in some contexts they can refer to = men=20 alone): ho anthropos (Greek), ha'adam (Hebrew), n=F4sh=F4 = (Syriac),=20 al-insan (Arabic), chelovyek (Russian), der Mensch = (German), de=20 man (Dutch), zmog=FAs (Lithuanian), and homo (Latin), = along with=20 its derivations in Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian. = Moreover,=20 literally thousands of other examples from other languages could be = given to=20 show that this usage is a universal phenomenon, Fr. Patrick adds. As a = former=20 feminist, Sarah Cowie, who is now an Orthodox Christian, also explains, = for=20 centuries women had no trouble in seeming themselves included in the = words=20 mankind, men, man, and the masculine referent pronoun. She notes = that=20 inclusive language, which is about power and control and has the real = goal of=20 forcing social change, carries the false assumption that the present = language is=20 not inclusive.

To no one's surprise, semantic confusion in this area = has been=20 created by feminism. As this political interest group came into being = against a=20 background of mass apostasy and the complete secularization of society, = it is=20 one whose sociopolitical program should be examined.

At its inception, feminism (then called women's = liberation)=20 claimed to have as its purpose increased opportunities for women. Once = its=20 organized activities attracted people's attention through this alleged=20 objective, this concern was quietly placed on a back burner in favor of = another=20 one =97 that of reducing humanity to a collection of victims of = patriarchal=20 tyranny and reducing the study of history and literature to political = warfare=20 carried on by other means.

Such a politicizing of history and literature is part = of a=20 broader deculturation that elite groups in the West are forcing onto = people, a=20 deculturation that attempts to regulate Christianity to a "regressive" = mentality=20 and that proclaims that it should not be given a public hearing. = Feminism=92s=20 agenda has not only converged with this broader ideological program, but = it has=20 also pushed harder along these lines than any other single political = interest=20 group. For this reason, a growing number of women in the academic world = have=20 come to see feminism as an attack upon humanity itself, an attack on the = West,=20 and most of all, an attack upon Christianity. They also understand that = in all=20 the politically correct routine bashing of Western civilization (through = which=20 people are led to draw the unmistakable corollary conclusion that = somehow=20 Christianity is the root of all evil), the overriding concern of = the=20 cultural elite and feminists alike is to make people forget who they are = and=20 where they came from =97 the first necessary step in indoctrinating them = for the=20 anti-Christian "utopia," the new world order.

Fr. Patrick goes on to note that today there are = entire=20 battalions of self-appointed theorists, "experts," political agitators = and other=20 wardens of the mind who issue orders to university administrators and = see to it=20 that academic writers bring themselves into conformity with the new = rules. When=20 their demands are not complied with, writers' manuscripts are either = rejected or=20 edited, and some professors have even been denied tenure for not using = the new=20 politically correct way of thinking or writing.

Fr. Patrick examines this extensive and all-pervasive = ideological control and notes that it is unparalleled in American = history.=20 Moreover, he adds, for some time now, those who promote it have even = forced=20 themselves into Church circles. There, thought police are coming to = accredit a=20 growing number of Christian seminaries, and the same orders are given to = seminary administrators and bishops as are given to universities. In = that=20 environment, radical feminist thought police attempt to "re-image" God = and=20 "revise" divine revelation by modifying masculine titles through which = He has=20 traditionally been invoked or referred to: Father, Son, Lord, King, and = so=20 forth, even though Christians have always worshiped God as Father and = pray to=20 Him as "our Father." An example of this linguistic engineering is a new=20 Methodist service book in which God is invoked by such names as = "Father-Mother,"=20 in direct contradiction to what God has revealed about Himself. Another = example=20 is the Inclusive Language Lectionary of the Bible that was = produced in=20 1983. In it, 209 passages were rewritten so that there were no masculine = gender=20 references to God. John 3:16, for instance, is rewritten in this absurd = wording:=20 "For God so loved the world that God gave God's only Child...." Feminism = is also=20 promoting a feminization of the Holy Spirit so that women can be = consoled with=20 their own divine Person.

When feminism is not always successful in turning God = into=20 "Mother," then it at least attempts to turn Him into a genderless = abstraction:=20 "the Creator," or "the Source." In its advanced stages, that is, in its=20 anti-rational, goddess-worship modes, feminism is offering a new=20 anti-Christian way for a new age in the new world order. Its = agenda in=20 this regard is one and the same as that of the forerunner agents of the=20 antichrist.

Perhaps some readers of these lines have felt = intimidated by=20 the cultural tyranny, mind control and pseudo-intellectual babble coming = from=20 educators, media personalities, judges and business leaders who together = shape=20 the intellectual, political and social atmosphere of our country. Few = can escape=20 being affected in one way or another by the ideological war raging = within our=20 borders as it comes from a very well-educated, well-heeled, powerful = cultural=20 elite. For those who have felt coerced into being politically correct by = their=20 ideologically charged environment, understand that the enemies of Church = and=20 state have bullied and browbeat you into this submission in an attempt = to=20 de-Christianize you for the new world order. In order to achieve their = global=20 imperium, the globalists rely on their ability to poison people with = hatred,=20 which is the old principle of divide et impera = (divide and=20 rule). By promoting discord and dividing people against one another = along as=20 many lines as possible (gender, racial, and other lines), the masses can = be=20 turned into obedient instruments of the one-world forces in their = sinister=20 agenda. At present, their work is that of dismantling all underlying = foundations=20 of society =97 most of all the Christian Churches. Then, at the time the = united=20 world government is ushered in, their ultimate aim will be the total=20 extermination of Christianity. At that time, Christians will be = politically=20 incorrect for professing Christ and for not bowing down to the modern = idol of=20 politically correct secular ideology. For these "crimes against = humanity," all=20 of them will summarily be dealt with by a world court of the new world = order, or=20 a Hague tribunal.

The world is now seething with unprecedented = passions, and=20 everyone can sense the approaching darkness. In view of these = developments, the=20 choice is now completely clear: capitulation to the politically correct=20 mentality of the new world order that is undeniably insane and bent on = the=20 complete eradication of Christianity, or adherence to the traditional = Christian=20 worldview that is now out of fashion, "regressive." For a Christian, = there can=20 be no doubt that the time has come for there to be no further thought of = being=20 programmed like a computer into being politically correct.

Concerning men and women, an Orthodox nun observes = that the=20 separation into gender was made by God in foreknowledge of the fall of = the=20 primogenitors of the human race. This condition is temporary, something = meant=20 only for this world. The nun goes on to note that the Holy Fathers teach = that=20 the souls of men and women are the same and that they have the same = spiritual=20 capacities and capabilities and needs. Orthodoxy therefore does not = denigrate or=20 disparage =97 but exalts =97 Christian women. As a deacon goes on to = note in this=20 regard:

The Orthodox Church venerates tens of thousands of = saints, both=20 individually and collectively. A great many of these are women. A = particular=20 role is played by the Myrrhbear-ers, to whom the Resurrection was first=20 revealed, and also by a group of women known as = Equals-of-the-Apostles,=20 who include great missionary saints. The Church also has collections of = Sayings=20 of the Spiritual Mothers containing the wisdom of female ascetics. One = instance=20 of the veneration of the Church for women is the way in which the Church = venerates St. Monica as a saint but reveres her son as "Blessed = Augustine," thus=20 recognizing a greater degree of saintliness in the modest humility and = silence=20 of the mother than in the son who wrote many tomes of learned theology, = much of=20 it spiritually inspired, but a small amount of it sadly erroneous. It is = almost=20 to confirm a popular proverb: "Behind every great man stands a great = woman."=20 Indeed, this is confirmed in Church history; every great male saint has = somehow=20 been linked to a grandmother, a mother, a sister, a spiritual mother or = sister=20 or daughter, or simply, in the case of laymen and married clergy, a = humble and=20 pious spouse. The foremost example is, of course, our Lord and His Holy = Mother=20 [Deacon Andrew Philips].

Likewise, as the above mentioned Sarah Cowie writes = in her book=20 More Spirited than Lions:

I was still a feminist when I discovered the Orthodox = Church.=20 In my study of Orthodoxy, I discovered its soul-stunning beauty and = power. I=20 fell in love with its saints. I was profoundly touched by the vision of=20 Christian womanhood I saw through their lives. They were living proof = that the=20 Orthodox Church is graced with mystical power that can bring a soul into = direct,=20 personal communication with its Creator [p. 18].

Regarding the women saints of the Church, the same = writer notes=20 that:

These were women like us who found answers =97 who = lived heroic=20 lives of courage, wisdom and holiness. They found a way of life and = followed it=20 unswervingly. They conquered both themselves and life's difficulties, = and rose=20 up to become noble, powerful women. Their lives shine forth in our lives = with a=20 light that is not of this world.... They are able to touch our souls and = lift us=20 up out of our quotidian life into a vision of nobility and beauty of = soul [p.=20 19].

Sarah Cowie comments further on women who were=20 Equals-of-the-Apostles, Fools-for-Christ's-Sake, holy eldresses, = preachers,=20 ascetics, abbesses, anchorites, prophetesses, queens, mothers, = confessors,=20 teachers and martyrs, noting that these saints did not find favor with = God=20 through ambition or demanding their "rights." Instead, they were given = the gifts=20 of the Holy Spirit according to their humility, and because they = submitted to=20 Christ through His Church. They were also granted unceasing noetic = prayer and=20 became miracle-workers and healers, and after their repose, their bodies = remained incorrupt and gushed myrrh that healed the sick. So powerful an = impact=20 does the example of their lives have that it was able to draw Sarah = Cowie and=20 many like her out of the anarchy and hell of feminism and the New Age = movement,=20 to Orthodox Christianity, which transforms men and women and gives them = the=20 strength to live in the most difficult and tormenting conditions, and = which=20 prepares them to depart with peace into the next life.

Although women have been greatly mistreated in this = sinful=20 world, this book does not do the same through its use of traditional = language.=20 It bears emphasizing that in no way does this work overlook that half of = the=20 human race =97 women =97 to whom God Himself granted a more = sensitive, keen=20 and impressionable nature, gifted with more warmhearted tenderness than = men, who=20 are coarse by nature. Therefore, let no women be troubled by the = politically=20 incorrect word man in the text. There is no antifeminine bias in = this=20 wording, and most certainly there is none whatsoever in Orthodox=20 Christianity.

To all readers =97 men and women alike =97 if you = have studied=20 Church history in your spiritual search but have not looked to the East, = which=20 is the very cradle of Christianity, your search is not complete. = Commenting on=20 the vision of Church history that exists in the West, a convert from = Roman=20 Catholicism to Eastern Orthodoxy writes that:

Most Roman Catholics, when they think of the early = Church,=20 think of Rome, the popes, the martyrs, the catacombs and the Coliseum. = This view=20 is perfectly understandable, because for Roman Catholics and = Protestants, their=20 spiritual genesis lies in Rome =97 i.e., Rome was the center of Western=20 Christianity. The early Church, however, was overwhelmingly Eastern and = Greek.=20 [The East] had the greatest population density and its people were = better=20 educated and more sophisticated than their Western brethren. The East = could=20 claim forty-four Churches of Apostolic origin, versus one for the West. = The West=20 was not the center of Christianity but for many hundreds of years was a=20 missionary field and with the barbarian invasions had become a cultural=20 backwater. The East held four of the five Patriarchates =97 i.e., = Constantinople,=20 Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem; two of these, Alexandria and Antioch, = contained the first schools of biblical interpretation. The Seven Great=20 Ecumenical Councils were all held in the East, with an overwhelming = presence of=20 Eastern bishops [Michael Whelton, Two Paths... p. 49].

Many Western Christians, parched wayfarers in these = dry and=20 thirsty times, have become totally disillusioned as their Churches have = joined=20 the latest whims and infatuations of the surrounding culture in an = attempt to be=20 "relevant" and experience worldly glory. Moreover, they have come to = understand=20 that their secularized Western Churches have succumbed to Christ's three = temptations in the desert instead of overcoming them, and that they = belong to a=20 Church that crucifies instead of being crucified. As one individual who = became=20 Orthodox expressed it, Western Christianity was "too outward" for him, = "not=20 inward." It was "too comfortable, having accommodated itself to the = world and=20 taken its lead from the world" [Fr. Damascene Christiansen]. As he and = countless=20 other converts to Orthodoxy have observed, the Western Churches offer = only easy,=20 trivial and shallow solutions to the deeper questions that confront all = people=20 on their journey through life. As a result, those Churches can only = spread=20 disappointment and despair to all who try to find something deeper and = more=20 essential.

Through the mercy of God, many conservative Roman = Catholic and=20 Protestant Christians are finding their way through the doors of the Ark = of=20 Salvation, the Orthodox Church, before God closes its doors forever in = the final=20 times. As the Encyclopedia Britannica Yearbook reports, the = Orthodox=20 Church is the fastest growing mainline Church in North America [1995 = ed., p.=20 275; 1996 ed., p. 298]. Likewise, an article in the April 4, 1998 = edition of the=20 Chicago Tribune noted that "within the last decade, Orthodox = Christians=20 in America have begun to welcome tens of thousands of converts, = especially=20 dissatisfied Protestant Christians." For these people, Orthodoxy's=20 unworldliness, the beauty of its services, the longevity of its = Tradition, its=20 being the original and the one Church founded by Christ, and its holding = and=20 preserving the faith of the Apostles as a precious jewel =97 all these = things make=20 Orthodoxy highly attractive to these Western newcomers. Many of these = inquirers=20 are ministers or better-informed laymen, and all are sincere seekers of = the=20 truth.

Readers of this book, you of different backgrounds = and=20 concerns, you have all been disappointed by humanistic systems and = strange ideas=20 that you have picked up along the way in seeking something true to fill = your=20 soul. All of you have had negative experiences and great spiritual = suffering in=20 this neo-pagan society of our times. You look to Christianity for a = knowledge of=20 the true God, the uncreated Consubstantial Trinity and Source of all = good, so=20 that you can rightly believe in Him and worthily honor Him. You have had = some=20 positive experiences in the Western Churches (for in them the Gospel is=20 proclaimed), yet you have also had to feel the spiritual bankruptcy that = exists=20 in the subjective, make-it-up-as-you-go-along denominations that are = forever=20 changing, that are constantly seeking to develop new theological = ideas,=20 new truths, and new understandings, and where religion is = anything=20 its adherents want it to be.

This study is for such people as yourselves, for it = offers an=20 initial glimpse of true historical Christianity that never changes = (something=20 you did not know exists), and it contrasts that purest form of = Christianity with=20 the great distortions of it that have come down in the West. "As far as = the East=20 is from the West" (Psalm 103:12), so far is the Truth of Eastern = Orthodox=20 Christianity from the contradictory teachings of the 23,000 Western=20 denominations. Once you come to see what those differences are about, = you will=20 never view things the same again.

These pages invite you to look to the East, to = Eastern=20 Orthodoxy, for the Orthodox Church is the sole grace-giving Church. As = one=20 writer reflects, its altar is undefiled, its doctrine is pure, its = Mysteries=20 (Sacraments) are full of grace and holy, and its Sacred Apostolic = Tradition has=20 been preserved. It is in this ancient Church that by God's grace, one's=20 salvation from this life of perdition is accomplished.

Steven Kovacevich

Pascha of 2003

 

1. Survey of Church History: = The=20 Beginnings.

1. What is meant by the expression the Church has = come a=20 full circle?

The question refers to the historic Church that = Christ and His=20 Apostles established on earth, the Eastern Orthodox Christian = Church,=20 which comes down in a straight succession without change from the age of = the=20 Apostles. The Orthodox Church has retained the continuity and purity of = ancient=20 Christian teaching, and it is the carrier of the fullest, most accurate, = authentic, ancient and historic Christian tradition, one that dates to = the=20 earliest Christian times. Even the most polemic Westerners acknowledge = that=20 Orthodoxy's tradition is the oldest in Christendom. Orthodox = Christianity has=20 the "fullness of faith delivered once and for all to the saints" (Jude = 1:3), and=20 it is the repository of "all that the Lord gave, the Apostles preached, = and the=20 Fathers preserved," as St. Athanasius the Great (+373) expressed it. = From the=20 beginning of the world, there was one faith only, and one Saviour and = Redeemer.=20 The Orthodox Christian faith is but the original and Old Testament faith = made=20 complete and clear.

Many Western Christians have come to realize that the = Orthodox=20 Church is the very continuation of the ancient Church in modern times. = Two=20 Americans who converted to Orthodoxy, for example, observe that:

The Orthodox Church, especially now with the freedom = of Eastern=20 Europe, is gaining ever greater attention in the Christian West. The = Western=20 world is suddenly discovering that the second largest Christian Church,=20 numbering 350 million or more souls, lays claim to antiquity =97 indeed = to a=20 history that reaches back to the time of the Apostles =97 and to a rich = spiritual=20 tradition that reaches far beyond the limits of Western theological = thought. As=20 they rediscover the Church of the Tsars and of the nineteenth-century = Eastern=20 monarchies, the Christians of the Occident are also discovering a = Christianity=20 much older than the Church of Rome, a Church which discussed and = resolved many=20 of the issues of the Reformation long before Western Christianity was = separated=20 from its Eastern roots. They are finding that the old political and = theological=20 prejudices that served to relegate that separation to the short memory = of=20 history are falling away. With the light of new knowledge from the East, = we in=20 the West are coming to understand that it was Rome that broke away from = the=20 ancient Patriarchates of the East in 1054, not the Eastern Orthodox = Church which=20 cut itself off from the Latin Church. We are coming to see the truncated = vision=20 of Christianity which has marked our intellectual history for more than = five=20 centuries. And as this happens, more and more Western Christians are = embracing=20 the Orthodox Church as the criterion of Christianity, as the source and = mother=20 of their own beliefs [Fr. David Cownie and Presbytera Juliana Cownie, = A Guide=20 to Orthodox Life: Some Beliefs, Customs and Traditions of the = Church, p.=20 1].

Concerning the 23,000 Western Churches (which are not = the=20 direct concern of this work, but which will still be examined), these = are part=20 of a larger body of groups that broke away from Orthodoxy since the time = of the=20 primitive Church, in accordance with the Apostle Paul's words that = "there must=20 also be heresies among you, that they which are approved may be made = manifest"=20 (1 Cor 11:19). As St. Justin (Popovich) of Chelije (+1979) writes in = this=20 regard, from time to time, many individuals

... have cut themselves off and have fallen away from = the one=20 and indivisible Church of Christ, whereby they ceased to be members of = the=20 Church and parts of her Theanthropic body. The first to fall away thus = were the=20 Gnostics, then the Arians, then the Macedonians, then the Monophysites, = then the=20 Iconoclasts, then the Roman Catholics, then the Protestants, then the = Uniates,=20 and so on....

As Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky goes on to = add:

Side by side with the straight, or right, path of = faith, there=20 have always been those who thought differently (heterodoxountes, = or=20 heterodox, in the expression of St. Ignatius the God-Bearer), a = world of=20 greater or lesser errors among Christians, and sometimes even whole = incorrect=20 systems which attempted to burst into the midst of Orthodox Christians. = As a=20 result of the quest for truth there occurred divisions among = Christians.

Becoming acquainted with the history of the Church, = and=20 likewise observing the contemporary world, we see that the errors which = war=20 against Orthodox Truth have appeared and do appear a) under the = influence of=20 other religions, b) under the influence of philosophy, and c) through = the=20 weaknesses and inclinations of fallen human nature, which seeks the = rights and=20 justifications of these weaknesses and inclinations.

Errors take root and become obstinate most frequently = because=20 of the pride of those who defend them, because of intellectual pride=20 [Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, pp. 23-24].

Here it is important to note that Orthodoxy does not = belittle=20 those who have separated from it. A Greek hierarch explains that St. = Maximus the=20 Confessor (+662), while expressing absolute disdain for false teachings = and=20 those things which defile the faith, nevertheless dismissed as abhorrent = any=20 harm directed against those who hold false beliefs themselves. He = clearly=20 separated false beliefs from the people who held them. In the same way,=20 Orthodoxy abhors intolerance, condemnation, and the dismissal of the = worth of=20 any human being. While Orthodoxy condemns false beliefs that threaten = it, it=20 does not condemn those who are misled by falsehood. The devil is the = source of=20 evil doctrine, and Orthodoxy condemns him and his minions and the poison = they=20 spread. However, the bishop concludes, those who are poisoned by the = devil by=20 holding false beliefs are not his, but are creatures of God, suffering = from the=20 deadly, soul-destroying jealousy of the devil.

The full circle concept in the question refers = to the=20 complete cycle that the Orthodox Church has gone through over the course = of two=20 thousand years. True to Christ's words that His followers would be hated = by the=20 world (cf. Jn 15:18-20, Mk 13:13, Mt 5:11, Lk 6:22-23, Mt 24:9-13), = virtually=20 all major persecutions for the Christian faith have fallen upon ancient = Orthodox=20 Christianity.

Many in Israel chose not to follow Christ, and as a = result, the=20 torch of faithfulness to Christ largely passed to the Gentiles, former = pagans,=20 as the Prophet Isaiah had foretold some seven hundred years earlier (Is=20 2:2,60:3,5). Christianity then began to spread with miraculous speed = from=20 Jerusalem, through the Levant and the Roman Empire and beyond, and it = continued=20 to make inroads among the pagans.

As the prince of this world, Satan, reigned in = paganism, which=20 was a kingdom of sin, he inevitably sensed a destructive force for him = in=20 Christianity. Having at his disposal the full political force of the = pagan=20 world, his immediate reaction was to promote a bloody and total = annihilation of=20 the Church. For three centuries, Christian blood was spilt throughout = the lands=20 of the entire Roman Empire, although the remarkable steadfastness and=20 self-sacrifice of the Christian martyrs proved to be the best witness of = their=20 faith. The pagans were awestruck by this witness, and they themselves = converted=20 and began to fill the ranks of the martyrs of the persecuted faith. = Thus, the=20 blood of the Christian martyrs became the seeds or Christianity, and = persecution=20 could not halt its spread.

Although the author of the textbook for this course = states that=20 the Roman Emperor Constantine's conversion to Christianity brought an = end to the=20 age of martyrs, this assertion is not in fact so, and one can only = conclude that=20 he is simply not completely well grounded in Church history to make so=20 elementary an error of fact. Constantine=92s conversion did end the = initial age of=20 the catacombs and produced the Christian Roman Empire (or = Byzantine=20 Empire, as Western historians named it), during which time the Orthodox = Church=20 produced the Liturgy, the Creed, the Bible, monasticism, and the whole = Christian=20 lifestyle with its elevated ideals and holiness that are totally alien = to the=20 corrupt world.

Even so, the age of martyrs continued. As = Archpriest=20 Alexey Young notes in this regard, Orthodox Christianity has lived for = two=20 thousand years on the edge of eternity. It has been faced time and again = with=20 virtual extermination by different conquerors, persecutors and heretical = movements, nourished even in our times by the blood of countless = martyrs.=20 Orthodoxy has always passed through the ages persecuted, wounded and = bloody,=20 like its Divine Founder. The same writer continues, noting that true to = Christ's=20 promise, however, the gates of hell never prevailed against His Church = (Mt=20 16:18). Despite all possible persecution by the mighty of this world, = Orthodoxy=20 has not been vanquished, but it has always survived victorious. To this = day it=20 still survives intact and gloriously pure, its gaze steadily focused on = the end=20 of the ages and the Second Coming of Christ.

Beginning in the seventh century, the rise of Islam = came about=20 with astonishing speed, taking Syria, Palestine, Egypt and northern = Africa, and=20 Spain. Later, starting in the fourteenth century, the Ottoman Turkish = Sultanate=20 began to conquer the Balkans, anterior Asia and northern Africa, = beginning a=20 domination that would continue until the early part of the twentieth=20 century.

A Greek hierarch explains that in essence, Islam is a = Christian=20 heresy, having its historical roots in the very areas inhabited and = sanctified=20 by the ancient Desert Fathers. He mentions that it took from = Christianity not=20 only the dress of its clergy, but the model for the minaret (the towers = on top=20 of which the stylites lived and practiced their ascesis), the practice = of making=20 full prostrations during prayer, and other things as well. (Even the = practice of=20 removing their shoes in prayer when entering a mosque is of Christian = origin. In=20 early times, this practice was observed in Christianity, just as priests = removed=20 their shoes when entering the altar). It is also a well-known fact that = Mohammed=20 was educated by a Jewish relative Varakh, who taught him the Old = Testament and=20 instilled in him a hatred of Christianity =97 a hatred that was = transmitted=20 straight into the Koran.

It is the duty of Islam and of each individual Moslem = to=20 convert every person to the Islamic religion, and by whatever means = necessary,=20 including swordpoint. This policy is fundamental for Islam's teaching = (and it=20 was likewise adopted by Roman Catholicism after its apostasy and schism = in 1054,=20 in complete contradiction to the teaching of the Gospel). Moreover, in = the event=20 attempts at conversion fail, the ultimate aim of Islam is the = extermination of=20 every "infidel" from the face of the earth.

Under the Moslems, Christians were once again forced = to enter=20 the catacombs, as it were, to live in constant expectation of violence,=20 horrendous torture and death (things the West is only beginning to = understand in=20 light of the recent growth of Islamic fundamentalism and the September = 11, 2001=20 terrorist attacks on the United States). For 400 years in Greece and 500 = years=20 in Serbia and other parts of the Balkans, entire villages of Christians = =97 men,=20 women and children =97 were impaled on thousands of stakes planted along = the sides=20 of roads. This situation of living in a sea of violence continues = unabated even=20 to this day among those Christians witnessing a recrudescence of warlike = fanaticism on the part of the Moslems.

Likewise, the Roman Catholic Church, ever since its = departure=20 from the ancient Apostolic Church in 1054, has acted with all possible = malice in=20 its attempts to destroy Christ's Church. Writing of the Latin Church's = numerous=20 inquisitions and mass murders of the Orthodox (something that continues = to these=20 times), St. John of Kronstadt (+1908), a contemporary of the last = Russian Tsar,=20 stated:

The Roman Church is not only the mother of countless = offenses=20 perpetrated against God and His Holy Scriptures, and against Tradition, = but of=20 gruesome and bloody atrocities against Orthodox Christians on the part = of Rome's=20 pope, its bishops and its clergy.

Prior to the year 1054, the Roman Church was united = to the=20 Eastern Orthodox Church; both were a part of the ancient Apostolic = Church of=20 Christ. Orthodox Christianity is indigenous to all the West, as well as = the=20 East, having come to Italy, Gaul, Scandinavia, Ireland and the entire = West long=20 before the East-West schism of 1054. There was only one = Christendom=20 (something which has survived down to our own days in the form of the = Orthodox=20 Church, which is the only true continuation of the early undivided = Church). For=20 one thousand years, the Christian Church =97 both East and West =97 = lived together=20 in harmony and essential oneness, and its bishops governed the Church as = equals.=20 In addition, the bishop of Rome held a position as patriarch of the = West, whose=20 authority consisted of jurisdiction over all the bishops in his = metropolitan=20 see, just as the patriarchs of Jerusalem, Constantinople, and elsewhere, = oversaw=20 the bishops of their respective sees. (A see is the territory of a = bishop's=20 jurisdiction). All bishops in Christendom were regarded as equal, and = none was=20 seen as an episcopus episcoporum, a "bishop of bishops." This = same=20 understanding has been maintained to this day in Orthodoxy. Certain of = its=20 bishops =97 patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops =97 enjoy special = status=20 among other bishops, but they are not above them.

Beginning in the ninth century, East and West began = to drift=20 apart when the bishop of Rome, or pope, began to introduce new = and=20 foreign ideas into the faith. (The words pope and = patriarch were=20 commonly used in the early Church to refer to the bishops of important=20 historical sees. Pope was not a designation reserved only for = Rome's=20 bishop, contrary to what many today erroneously think). One of the false = ideas=20 was that of the supremacy of the bishop of Rome over the bishops of = Jerusalem,=20 Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch, and over all other bishops, of = whom=20 there were hundreds by that time. Protopriest Victor Potapov notes that = under=20 the influence of national traditions that were bound up with the might = of=20 ancient Rome, the Romans came to think that mighty Rome should have the = same=20 significance in Church affairs as it had in affairs of state. Especially = powerful in the Roman mindset was the idea of the monarchical absolutism = of the=20 Roman emperors, which went so far as proclaiming them gods. The idea of=20 unlimited supremacy in one person over the whole world became an = ecclesiastical=20 idea in the West, and it came to be transferred from the emperor to the = Roman=20 pope. Even the title Pontifex Maximus that the Roman emperors = bore was=20 taken over by the popes. Thus, Fr. Victor notes, a striving for = self-exaltation=20 and domination over the Church overtook the Roman popes, and in this = striving,=20 Rome entered the path of error. As Fr. Theodore Pulcini, a convert from = Roman=20 Catholicism to Orthodoxy, goes on to point out, "The division between = the=20 Eastern and Western Churches was not the result of Orthodoxy's stubborn = refusal=20 to recognize papal authority, but of Roman Catholicism's unjustifiable=20 claims." [Orthodoxy and Catholicism: What are the = Differences? pp.=20 8-9].

Concerning the role that the Apostle Peter played in = Rome,=20 Scripture is silent. However, Fr. Raymond Brown, a Roman Catholic priest = and=20 Church historian, makes the following noteworthy observations:

We have no knowledge at all when [the Apostle Peter] = came to=20 Rome and just what he did there before he was martyred. Certainly he was = not the=20 original missionary who brought Christianity to Rome, and therefore was = not the=20 founder of the Church of Rome in that sense. There is no proof that he = was the=20 bishop (or local ecclesiastical officer) of the Roman Church =97 a claim = not made=20 [by Rome] until the third century. Most likely he did not spend any = major time=20 in Rome before 58 AD... and came to the capital city shortly before his=20 martyrdom [Quoted in The Myth of Papal Infallibility, pp. = 33-34].

As D.W. O=92Conner also writes concerning this = matter:

Nothing can be finally determined, however, = about=20 when Peter came to Rome, how long he stayed, or = what=20 function of leadership, if any, he exercised in the Roman Church = [Ibid.,=20 p. 35].

Harvard-educated and twice Fulbright scholar Dr. = Constantine=20 Cavarnos sums up this uncertainty of Catholic scholars in his notation = that=20 the Roman Catholic Church defined its founder to be the Apostle = Peter.=20 This claim was made not because Peter had in fact founded the = Church of=20 Rome, but because the Latin Church wanted to exploit certain passages = in the=20 Gospels where the Apostle Peter is mentioned, and wanted to base the = dogma of=20 papal primacy on those passages.

According to the Acts of the Apostles, it was the = Apostle Paul=20 who first taught Christianity in Rome. However, neither St. Paul, the = actual=20 founder of the Church of Rome, nor St. Peter (perhaps the co-founder) = ever held=20 any actual primacy in the Church, nor did any city. (In the matter of = Peter's=20 being the co-founder of the Church of Rome, the authorities differ, = although had=20 Peter truly been the first bishop of Rome, it is inconceivable that Paul = would=20 have ignored his presence =97 cf. Rom 15:20). The notion of papal = primacy is=20 ludicrous to Eastern Christians, for Christian primacy rests squarely on = the=20 Divinity of Christ. As Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky explains:

The Orthodox Church of Christ refuses to recognize = yet another=20 head of the Church in the form of a Vicar of Christ on Earth, a = title=20 given in the Roman Catholic Church to the bishop of Rome. Such a title = does not=20 correspond either to the word of God or to the universal Church = consciousness=20 and tradition; it tears away the Church on earth from immediate unity = with the=20 heavenly Church. A vicar is assigned during the absence of the one = replaced; but=20 Christ is invisibly present in His Church always.

The rejection by the ancient Church of the view of = the bishop=20 of Rome as the Head of the Church and Vicar of Christ upon earth is = expressed in=20 the writings of those who were active in the Ecumenical Councils = [Protopresbyter=20 Michael Pomazansky, Op. cit., p. 228].

As another writer also noted, the "Vicars of Christ = on Earth,"=20 with their pretensions not only to spiritual, but also to temporal = authority,=20 were representatives of spiritual pride. No greater spiritual pride can = be=20 imagined than the conviction of one's own infallibility.

St. Cyprian of Carthage (+258), himself a bishop and = one of=20 the most authoritative of the early Church Fathers =97 and also = regarded as a=20 saint by the Roman Catholic Church =97 spoke about the authority of = bishops in the=20 following way:

Let each one give his opinion without judging anyone = and=20 without separating from the communion of those who are not of his = opinion; for=20 none of us sets himself up as a bishop of bishops, nor compels his = brethren to=20 obey him by means of tyrannical terror, every bishop having full liberty = and=20 complete power; as he cannot be judged by another, neither can he judge = another.=20 Let us all wait the judgment of our Lord Jesus Christ, Who alone has the = power=20 to appoint us to the government of His Church and to judge our conduct = [Quoted=20 in Abb=E9 Guet=E9e, The Papacy: Its Historic Origins and Primitive = Relations with=20 the Eastern Churches, 1866].

Knowing that Rome's novel teaching of a supreme ruler = with=20 primacy of jurisdiction would divide and corrupt the Church, the Eastern = patriarchs pleaded with the Roman patriarch not to introduce this false=20 teaching. Another innovation that Rome began to introduce was its = changing the=20 Nicene Creed that had been established by the early Church. Based on = Holy=20 Scriptures and the truths that the Church has always held since the time = of the=20 Apostles, this Creed is a summary of the beliefs of the Christian = Church. The=20 Eastern Church warned the Church in the West of the dangers of changing = any part=20 of the Christian faith, and especially the very Creed itself. However, = Rome=20 insisted on its innovations, even though the believers resisted.

During these difficult times, many attempts were made = to work=20 out the differences between the Eastern and Western Churches, and all of = Christendom tried to call Rome back to the orthodox understanding of=20 Christianity. In the end, though, the Orthodox Church could not = compromise and=20 allow the faith to be changed and corrupted, and for its part, Rome had = already=20 made its decision to part ways and would not come back. In 1054, the = Roman=20 Church officially severed itself from the ancient sees of the Christian=20 Church, including the Mother Church, the first Church of Christendom = =97=20 Jerusalem, and from the Church where Christians were first known by that = name =97=20 Antioch (Acts 11:26), and from the rest of the Christian Church. As = Thomas=20 Hulbert, a Dutch convert to Orthodoxy notes, the Great Schism of 1054 = proved to=20 be a heavy curtain dividing Christianity: it cut the West off from the = right=20 doctrines and the right faith preserved in Eastern Orthodoxy.

Like the non-Chalcedonians before him, the pope = precipitated=20 another schism, and like them, he estranged himself and his followers = from the=20 Church. In the Great Schism of 1054, one of the Churches =97 and only = one =97=20 Rome, separated itself from the ancient Churches which had been = preserved=20 in the East since the time of the Apostles. Concerning Rome's = schism, the=20 Roman Catholic writer, former Jesuit priest and insider at the Vatican, = Malachi=20 Martin, writes that the Latin Church was

=85now ready to abandon one half of Christianity (and = the more=20 ancient, the more flourishing part) for the sake of worldly ambition.... = In=20 their greed and jealousy, the Roman popes asserted an absolutist primacy = that=20 Eastern Christians will never accept. The damage went even further. Once = Rome=20 was willing to sacrifice the oldest and most substantial part of = Christianity to=20 its own concept of power, it is small wonder that it could not be = bothered by an=20 obscure but loudmouthed Augustinian monk called Martin Luther.... The = popes,=20 blindly and without thinking, cast off half of Europe and made straight = the way=20 for the Protestant Reformation [The Decline and Fall of the Roman = Church,=20 1981].

In the aftermath of this devastating schism, the West = experienced tremendous turmoil and corruption. The Crusades were = undertaken,=20 which evolved into an attack upon the Eastern Church. Later came the=20 Inquisition, then the Renaissance, which mixed pagan ideas with = Christianity,=20 and finally the Protestant Reformation, which splintered Western = Christianity=20 into thousands of denominations.

Having succumbed to one of the temptations put to = Christ by=20 Satan in the wilderness, that of worldly domination, and severed at that = juncture from the true doctrine of the East and the grace of the Holy = Spirit,=20 Rome stopped looking to the Church as something otherworldly which = pointed=20 believers to Heaven. Instead, it became this-worldly and pointed them to = the=20 earthly organization, thus beginning "organized religion." Now regarding = the=20 authority of the Roman Caesars as their own prerogative, the popes = seized power=20 in the temporal sphere and asserted an absolute authority and universal=20 domination over all mankind.

Carrying one step further the ambition of supreme = worldly power=20 that the power-hungry popes arrogated to themselves, the infamous Jesuit = order,=20 the shock troops for Rome, promulgated the slogan that the end justifies = the=20 means. Translated into action, this principle meant that whenever Rome's = bloodthirsty Uniate movement could not persuade Orthodox Christians to = become=20 Uniate Catholics under Rome through words, the Latin Church was then = justified=20 in using force and murder, for "error has no rights," Rome believes, and = is=20 therefore subject to "control" by decree and deed. One such decree, the=20 Syllabus of Errors propagated by Pope Pius IX in 1864, demands = that the=20 "Roman Church be regarded as the only religion of the state, to the = exclusion of=20 all other religions" (#77). This same decree, which is listed in the = Catholic=20 Dictionary as being the official teaching of the faith, has never = been=20 retracted or disowned by the Latin Church, although its contents have = been=20 closeted. In another place, the decree proclaims that the Roman Catholic = Church=20 has "the power to employ force, or any temporal power, direct or = indirect," when=20 dealing with persons dangerous to it (#24), and it claims that it is = pernicious=20 to deny that the Church has "immunity from civil law or its penalties" = (#37).=20 The textbook for this course notes that the tale of the Uniate movement = in=20 Poland makes sorrowful reading: the Jesuits began by using deceit and = ended by=20 resorting to violence.

After its separation from Orthodoxy, the Latin Church = promoted=20 countless murderous inquisitions in Eastern Europe. As a Greek monk = notes, Rome=20 conducted these genocides through the same Unia, the papacy's most = effective=20 siege engine, which operates as the janissaries of the papacy, with all = the=20 fanaticism of the janissaries, against Orthodoxy. Among the many = inquisitions in=20 the twentieth century, one took place in World War II Poland, where the = Latins=20 murdered 800,000 Orthodox. At the same time and at the direction of the = same=20 black hand, in Croatia, Catholic killer clergy (most notably the = Franciscans)=20 and killer police massacred 750,000 Orthodox for their refusal to = renounce=20 Orthodoxy and embrace Roman Catholicism, although not before submitting = them to=20 infinitely gruesome tortures, no doubt the worst recorded in the annals = of=20 history. One of the members of the evil coven of sadistic clergy = assassins=20 openly boasted that he alone had killed 40,000 of the Orthodox. As = Alexei=20 Khomiakov perceptibly noted, the ancestors of Roman Catholics who long = ago=20 committed moral fratricide by unilaterally changing the Church's Creed=20 invariably would resort to physical fratricide. Such they did, and well = did St.=20 Nikolai Velimirovich (+1956) call the Latin Church a semi-military = organization=20 that has used all means to gain world domination.

By far the most virulent and deadly form of = anti-Christianity=20 the world has so far witnessed is the end-times phenomenon of Communism, = an=20 outburst of primordial satanism that was created and financed in the = West, and=20 that was unleashed upon Russia by Western capitalism as an experiment = for the=20 one-world government of the antichrist. Because of that great cataclysm, = far=20 more Christians have lost their lives for their Orthodox faith in the = tragic,=20 pre-apocalyptic twentieth century than in the three hundred years = following=20 Christ's Crucifixion.

Communism is part of the "mystery of iniquity" = (2 Thes=20 2:7, Apoc 17:5), that is, Satan's plan of battle with Christ's Church.=20 Archpriest Boris Molchanoff explains that this process has been in = motion for=20 ages and that it will reach its culmination at the appearance of the = antichrist=20 (2 Thes 2:8).

Writing of a "force that withholdeth" the = mystery of=20 iniquity (2 Thes 2:6), the Apostle Paul states that this force will be = "taken=20 out of the way" (2 Thes 2:7). As the meaning of the withholding = power=20 in this passage is not obvious, Fr. Paul Volmensky provides the = following=20 explanation:

In seeing the everlasting battle of Satan for = supremacy over=20 the entire world, God gave a restraining power which does not let = the=20 devil deploy his various means. Limiting the power of the devil so that = he could=20 not destroy us, God does not deprive us of the freedom to choose to = serve Him.=20 Digression from God denotes an increase of iniquity. When almost all of = mankind=20 of its own will shall be immersed in evil, not seeking communion with = God and=20 eternal life, then the restraining power of God will withdraw, = antichrist will=20 appear, and the end shall come to all....

The appearance of the antichrist shall not take place = until=20 divine providence determines the time at which moment the = "withholder"=20 will be taken away. According to the Holy Fathers, what withholdeth = is the=20 Holy Spirit and Roman authority ["In Memory of Tsar-Martyr Nicholas = II,"=20 Orthodox Life, vol. 43, no. 4, 1993, pp. 2-4; emphasis = added].

Concerning these two parts of the withholding force = =97 the role=20 of the Holy Spirit and that of Roman authority, comment is needed on = both. The=20 same Fr. Paul explains the Holy Spirit's role by noting:

Some Fathers explain that antichrist shall not come = while the=20 Holy Spirit abides in people, while people possess an intimate, = grace-filled=20 union with the Lord through the fulfillment of God's commandments. When = evil=20 shall be multiplied among people and no longer shall there be men = seeking=20 eternal life, then the Holy Spirit will withdraw from the world. If = there is no=20 one on earth being saved, then there is no further need for its = existence.=20 People darkened by sin, in whom the Holy Spirit is absent, will = accelerate the=20 end of the world. They themselves shall rise up against lawful = government=20 authority and deprive themselves of that restraining power which would = have=20 hindered the appearance and activities of the antichrist [Ibid., = p.=20 4].

Archimandrite Panteleimon (+1984), a co-founder of = the Holy=20 Trinity Monastery in Jordanville, New York, provides a well developed = and=20 detailed analysis of the other factor that withholds =97 that is, the = Roman=20 authority. He writes:

What are the means for restraining the antichrist so = that the=20 elect may be brought to salvation? Our Fathers considered the = withholding power=20 of the antichrist to be the Roman Empire. In their time the Roman = Empire=20 still existed and it was possible to support this interpretation based = on the=20 prophecy of the Prophet Daniel. In our times, the only significance we = can give=20 to such an idea is within the context of understanding the Roman Empire = to mean=20 imperial (monarchical) power in general. Concerning such power, = we should=20 understand it to be a monarchy which has the ability to control social = movement,=20 and at the same time adhere to Christian principles. It does not allow = the=20 people to stray from these principles; it contains the people. Since the = antichrist will have as his main task the goal of attracting the people = away=20 from Christ, he therefore will not arrive if monarchy is still in = control. This=20 power will not allow him to appear; it impedes his negating spiritual = activity.=20 This is the withholding power. When the monarchy fails, and = everywhere=20 nations institute self-government (republics, democracies), then the = antichrist=20 will be able to act freely. It will not be difficult for Satan to = prepare voters=20 to renounce Christ, as experience taught us during the French = Revolution. There=20 will be no one to veto the movement. A humble declaration of faith will = not be=20 heard. Thus, when such a social order is instituted everywhere, making = it easy=20 for anti-Christian movements to appear, then the antichrist will come = forth. St.=20 John Chrysostom's words lead us to this thought when in his time = monarchy was=20 understood to mean the Roman Empire. "When it is said that the Roman = government=20 has ceased to be, then the antichrist will appear. Until that time the=20 government [monarchy] will be feared. No one will easily follow the = antichrist.=20 After this time, when such control will be liquidated, anarchy will = triumph, and=20 the antichrist will try to capture all human and divine power." [A = Ray of=20 Light: Instructions in Piety and the State of the World at the End of = Time,=20 p. 38; emphasis added].

Analyzing further the term what withholdeth, = Fr. Paul=20 adds that:

The Russian Fathers of the Church ascribed particular = significance to the Russian Orthodox sovereign, the only = protector of=20 Orthodoxy in the whole world. For example, this is what the holy = righteous John=20 of Kronstadt taught about royal authority: "By means of sovereigns the = Lord=20 watches over the good of earthly kingdoms, especially the good of the = peace of=20 His Church. Through them He does not allow godless teaching, heresies = and=20 schisms to overwhelm her. And the greatest villain of the world, the = antichrist,=20 cannot appear in our midst, because of autocratic authority (that is, = the=20 benevolent Orthodox sovereignty), deterring the lawless reeling and = absurd=20 teaching of the ungodly. The Apostle says that antichrist shall not = appear on=20 earth as long as autocratic authority shall exist" [Op. cit., p. = 4].

In these pre-apocalyptic times, the significance of = the removal=20 of the withholding power cannot be overemphasized. It is therefore = important to=20 examine this matter even further, and Fr. Michael Azkoul does so with = careful=20 and elaborate detail. In his booklet Sacred Monarchy and the Modern = Secular=20 State, Fr. Michael explains that Communism put an end to the four = great=20 empires that were to rule upon earth, as foretold by the Prophet=20 Daniel. According to this prophecy, these four empires were the=20 Egyptian, the Persian, the Greek and the = Roman,=20 after which would come the end times.

The same writer goes on to note that the Roman = Empire=20 was both pagan (inaugurated by Augustus Caesar) and Christian = (inaugurated by=20 Constantine the Great). The Christian Roman Empire had two phases = as=20 well: the Byzantine Greek and the Russian. As = Schema-Archimandrite=20 Damian of the Ascension Monastery in Resaca, Georgia adds, from = Constantine to=20 the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the mantle of "Protector of the = Church" fell=20 upon the shoulders of the Roman authority, then resident in = Constantinople, the=20 Second Rome. With the fall of Constantinople, this mantle fell to the = lineage of=20 the Russian Tsars to protect and preserve the well-being of the Church. = Thus,=20 Tsar Nicholas II and his predecessors, having received autocratic = authority from=20 Byzantium, were successors to Constantine and those Greek (or Byzantine) = emperors who followed him. Such was God's providential means of = establishing=20 the Orthodox Christian Church in the world.

Continuing, Fr. Michael explains that the Russian=20 Empire, the last phase of the Roman Imperium, successor to Byzantium = or=20 Christian Rome, was the last Christian society, and Tsar Nicholas II was = the=20 last Christian emperor, as true kingship depends upon the true faith. = Thus, none=20 of the heretical societies of the post-Orthodox West can be spoken of as = a=20 societas Christiana. Fr. Michael also states that there has never = been a=20 monarch in the post-schism West "by the grace of God." (One can observe = a=20 striking example of this principle in the so-called Holy Roman = Empire.=20 Historians note that this empire was not holy but was very secular. As = an=20 Orthodox historian notes in this regard, the Holy Roman Empire was = conceived in=20 heresy, born in schism, and maintained in existence in order to bolster = the=20 power of the heretical popes against the Orthodox Church). Unlike the = monarchies=20 and kingdoms of apostate Western Europe, the Russian monarchy = maintained the=20 true faith as given by the Holy Apostles and kept in the Eastern = Orthodox=20 Church.

The Russian Tsar played a decisive role in = restraining the=20 approach of the satanic powers. Western Europe was well aware of the = might of=20 its Orthodox Christian neighbor in maintaining peace, and the title = the=20 Peacemaker was ascribed to Tsar Alexander III not by the Russians, = but by=20 the West. Likewise, after the destruction of Russia by Communism, one=20 authoritative Western historian, Professor G. Ferrero of the Roman = National=20 University, wrote that:

Europe urgently needs peace. Innumerable misfortunes = are=20 threatening us from all sides. Why? Because Imperial Russia is no more. = And=20 without her, there is no more peace, which she alone brought to the = world. After=20 the victory over Napoleon, Russia completely gave herself over to the = cult of=20 peace. Russia's amazing aspiration to maintain and protect peace at any = cost and=20 simultaneously with absolute selflessness, must be acknowledged as a = deep=20 mystery. Balance in the world shall not ensure and we shall not avoid = crises=20 until Russia will arise in all of her glory [Quoted in Fr. Paul = Volmensky,=20 op. cit., pp. 4-5].

As the devil recognized that the Russian monarchy = interfered=20 with his attempts to possess the whole world, it was necessary to = destroy that=20 authority. Archbishop Averky (+1976) of Jordanville explains that the = murder of=20 the Royal House of Russia was not a political act, but rather purely = spiritual,=20 one closely bound up with the battle against God and faith. He = states:

This murder was thought out and organized by none = other than=20 the servants of the approaching antichrist. Those people, who having = sold their=20 souls to Satan, are executing the most intense preparation for the hasty = reign=20 of the enemy of Christ, antichrist, over the whole world. They = understood=20 perfectly well that the main obstacle standing in their way was Orthodox = Imperial Russia.... And for the quickest and surest annihilation of = Russia, it=20 was necessary to annihilate the one who was its living symbol, the = Orthodox=20 Tsar.

It is for the foregoing reasons that the Russian = Fathers of the=20 Church view the Russian monarchy as the withholding power. = Moreover, as Fr. Michael explains, the murder of the last Tsar brought = about=20 the extinction of the Age of Constantine and the end to God's = plans=20 concerning world empires. With the disappearance of Christian Rome, = that=20 which restrained world revolution, world atheism, anarchy and apostasy = is no=20 more, and Satan works unbridled and performs his dark schemes on a = world=20 scale. No longer is there any earthly authority to hinder him. 1918, the = year=20 Russia's royal family was killed, is a watershed year in human history, = for it=20 ushered in the pre-apocalyptic epoch through which we are = currently=20 living.

The seer of mysteries, St. John the Theologian, = describes these=20 end-times events in terms of Satan's being set free from his temporary = bondage,=20 or thousand-year bondage, as he allegorically calls it in = Revelation=20 20:1-2. This thousand-year bondage is another important matter to = examine, given=20 its significant connection to contemporary history. Some modern = sectarians have=20 misinterpreted the Evangelist John's words. These new teachers, = rehashing=20 the ancient heresy of Chiliasm, maintain that before the end of = the=20 world, Christ will come to earth again to overthrow the antichrist, to = resurrect=20 the righteous, and to establish a new kingdom on earth in which the = righteous=20 will reign together with Him for a thousand years.

This incorrect interpretation is an exact repetition = of the=20 heretic Apollinarius' false teaching, which was condemned by the = Universal=20 Church at the Second Ecumenical Council (381). Importantly, it was in = response=20 to this ancient heresy that this Council introduced into the very Symbol = of=20 Faith (the Creed) these words concerning Christ: "and His kingdom = will have=20 no end." Thus, it was no longer permissible for an Orthodox = Christian to=20 hold chiliastic ideas as private opinions after an Ecumenical Council = expressed=20 its judgment on the matter.

Given these things, it can be asked just what does = the=20 thousand-year bondage mean? Archbishop Averky of Jordanville and=20 Hieromonk Seraphim Rose comment on this term in their book The = Apocalypse and=20 the Teachings of Ancient Christianity (pp. 253-54). St. Andrew of = Caesarea,=20 they explain, interprets the thousand-year bondage as the time "from the = Incarnation of Christ to the coming of the antichrist." During that = time, Satan=20 was bound, paganism was cast down, and there came upon earth the = thousand-year=20 reign of Christ. The authors go on to explain that the definite = number one=20 thousand is used in place of an indefinite number, signifying the = long=20 period until the Second Coming of Christ.

Moreover, as the editor notes in Protopresbyter = Michael=20 Pomazansky's Orthodox Dogmatic Theology (pp. 344-45), Blessed = Augustine=20 of Hippo connects the "binding" of the devil for a thousand years (Apoc. = 20:2)=20 with the "binding" of the "strong man" in Mark 3:27 (see also Christ's = words in=20 John 12:31, that "now shall the prince of this world be cast out"). = Blessed=20 Augustine also states that "the binding of the devil is his being = prevented from=20 the exercise of his whole power to seduce men." Thus, the thousand = years=20 (the whole period) of Christ's reign with His saints and the limited = power of=20 the devil is the victory of Christ over paganism and the = establishment on=20 earth of the Church of Christ, and that time is now.

It is also of importance to note that a related error = to the=20 resuscitated heresy of Chiliasm is the "rapture." This false teaching, a = misinterpretation of 1 Thes 4:17, claims that Christians will be = enraptured from=20 the earth and caught up in the clouds seven years before the Second = Coming of=20 Christ. This teaching is Protestantism's false hope to avoid suffering = since its=20 theology does not give a way to deal with it. However, in contrast to = its idea=20 of a non-suffering Church stands the witness of the martyric deaths of = millions=20 of Orthodox Christians, not only in the early Church, but also during = the Arian=20 controversy, the Iconoclastic struggle, the Moslem yoke and the Uniate=20 persecutions, and most especially when Communism ravaged nearly the = whole of the=20 Orthodox world during the last century.

The rapture teaching is false because it is = refuted=20 by Scripture, which makes it entirely clear that the elect will = suffer on=20 earth during the reign of the antichrist and that for their sake = that period=20 will be shortened (cf. Mt 24:21-22). (This point is very important and = must be=20 emphasized particularly, inasmuch as the acceptance of the false = teachings of=20 Chiliasm and the rapture can lead people to the erroneous expectation = that they=20 will be taken from the face of the earth when the antichrist makes his=20 appearance. In such a state of complacency, many people will not = recognize him=20 and will end up accepting him, thereby losing their souls).

Even as the political structure of a united world = government is=20 being planned (it will claim to be the revitalized Roman Empire), so too = is a=20 single-world religion to emerge. This religion is being formed by = the=20 National Council of Churches and the World Council of Churches, which = created=20 ecumenism, a new heresy in the Church. Like the religion of the = pagan=20 Roman Empire, which was syncretic in its borrowing from various pagan = religions=20 in the ancient world, the religion of the one-world government will also = be=20 syncretic in its supposedly being based on the best principles of many=20 religions. Under the guise of a "reconciliation" of faiths, ecumenism = equates=20 truth with falsehood and promotes a future ecumenical "church" that will = unify=20 all existing creeds, even though such a unification entails a = relativization of=20 God's Truth. As a Greek bishop notes, by bringing together all the world = religions, ecumenism, rather than combining all the partial truths that = various=20 religions supposedly contain, may combine all the falsehoods that = they=20 embrace, thus creating a one-world religion that embraces all = evil.

In the past, when Satan was unsuccessful in bringing = about the=20 complete physical destruction of Christ's Church through persecution, he = turned=20 to a different tactic: heresies. As can be observed in history, Satan = used=20 heresies to attack Christian truths in almost the same identical = order in=20 which they are listed in the Nicaeo-Constantinopolitan Symbol of Faith, = the=20 Church's Creed. Now, through the heresy of ecumenism, the devil's = final=20 onslaught against these truths is taking place, and this time the = attack is=20 against the words: "I believe in... One, Holy, Catholic and = Apostolic=20 Church." By means of such an attack upon the Creed, upon the Holy = Apostles,=20 and upon the Ecumenical Councils, Satan denies the truth that the = Saviour=20 founded only one true Church on earth. Through ecumenism, Satan = denies=20 Holy Scriptures, which teach that there is "one Lord, one = faith,=20 one Baptism" (Eph 4:5), one Holy Tradition (cf. 2 Thes 2:15), and = one Christian Church founded by Christ (cf. Mt 16:18).

Hieromonk Sava Yanj=EDc expends further on this = end-times heresy,=20 stating that the worldwide ecumenical apostasy is spreading on all = levels.=20 Everything possible is being done, he states, in order to establish an=20 anti-church, a "reborn Christianity." Dogmas are being = revised,=20 Church history is being rewritten, and there is an intense = secularization and=20 modernization of spiritual life. Fr. Sava goes on to liken today's = ecumenism to=20 a Pandora's box from which hundreds of ancient heresies are breaking = loose.=20 Archbishop Averky adds:

Ecumenism is the heresy of heresies. Until now, every = separate=20 heresy in the history of the Church has striven itself to stand in the = place of=20 the true Church, while the ecumenical movement, having united all = heresies,=20 invites them all together to honor themselves as the one true Church. = Here=20 ancient Arianism, Monophysitism, Monothelitism, Iconoclasm, Pelagianism, = and=20 simply every possible superstition of the contemporary sects under = completely=20 different names, have united to charge and attack the Church. This = phenomenon is=20 undoubtedly of an apocalyptic character.

(Here the archbishop is referring to the fact that = very few=20 heresies since the time of the early Church have been original, and that = most=20 have been rehashes of ancient follies. Monophysitism of the fifth = century, for=20 example, contributed to the Monothelitism of the seventh century, and to = the=20 syncretism and outgrowth of some of the contemporary heresies of the = present=20 time. Another example is the ancient Arian heresy, which surfaced in our = times=20 as the Jehovah=92s Witnesses).

As the panheresy of ecumenism gains more and more = momentum and=20 increased support from world governments, and as it comes to regard = itself as an=20 ecumenical "super-church," its infinite hatred of Christ and Orthodox=20 Christianity is becoming increasingly apparent. Once the ecumenical = movement's=20 man-made religion (or, more precisely, its devil-made religion) = is=20 installed as the official state religion under the antichrist, most = established=20 Church institutions will be drawn into this worldwide "church." Orthodox = Christianity will then become a religio illicita, even as it was = in the=20 days of the pagan Roman Empire. As the same Fr. Sava notes concerning = the times=20 that are approaching, Orthodox Christians will once again be persecuted, = just as=20 in Roman and Soviet times. He further notes that:

The adherents of the false "Christianity" and other = united=20 religions will accuse [the Orthodox] of being intolerant and hateful = people,=20 opponents of the new world order and, by extension, of the welfare and = happiness=20 of mankind. Many will be imprisoned in special camps for "reeducation, " = where=20 they will be severely tortured in an effort to force them to deny the = Living God=20 and His Church, and to bow down before the rulers of this world. And = thus the=20 Church, like a pure and undefiled virgin, washed in the blood of = martyrs... just=20 as in the early years of Christianity, will wait to greet her Bridegroom = ["Ecumenism in an Age of Apostasy," Orthodox America, vol. 18, = nos. 7-8,=20 2000, p. 16].

As Archpriest Boris Molchanoff also notes concerning = the final=20 times:

When the day shall come when antichrist, the false = messiah,=20 shall enter into Jerusalem, the fate of humanity contemporary to him = shall also=20 be decided, irrevocably and forever. Blessed are those who, at that = final day=20 given by God for the decisive self-determination of the people, will be = able to=20 see the servant of Satan and perceive the inescapable destruction with = him of=20 all humanity that acknowledges him [Antichrist, p. 4].

To reiterate and summarize, the full circle = concept=20 refers to the historical development that began with Christ's Church = being poor=20 and persecuted, after which it became the religion of the Christian = Roman=20 Empire, only to end up once again in its final state in a catacomb = existence. It=20 bears repeating that the idea is not entirely accurate inasmuch as there = have=20 been constant and dreadful persecutions against the Church throughout = the=20 centuries. However, given the apocalyptic nature of Communism and its = satanic=20 hatred of Orthodox Christianity, the full circle idea is still = significant.=20 Whereas Communism impinged only upon the periphery of the Roman Catholic = and=20 Protestant worlds, eighty-five percent of Orthodox Christians came to be = enslaved in Communist totalitarian police states that sought the = complete=20 destruction of Christ's Church and all Orthodox Christians. Indeed, it = was for=20 that very reason Communism was invented and forced upon the Eastern = Orthodox=20 Christian world by the totally secularized and apostate West. The West's = support=20 of the Soviet revolution is now a well-known fact.

In the present calm before the storm of the one-world = government, even though the atheistic Soviet regime of the past no = longer=20 exists, recycled Communist leaders continue to meddle in Church affairs = by=20 appointing sycophantic hierarchs (often secret police in cassocks) who = traffic=20 in the evil ecumenical movement and who see to the persecution of those=20 Christians who do not go along with their apostasy. It is the intent of = these=20 bishops to bring the various local Orthodox Churches over which they = preside=20 into the embrace of the one-world "church" of the antichrist. Thus, = ecumenism is=20 upheld and is emanating from many of "those who appear to be the = protectors and=20 leaders of the Church." With this development, that portion of the = Church=20 that has not capitulated to the ecumenist heresy has largely returned to = the=20 catacombs, thus presaging the end-times events that are foretold in = the=20 Apocalypse, that is, the Revelation of the Holy Apostle and Evangelist = John the=20 Theologian, whose book concludes the New Testament. As the textbook for = this=20 course states, "Christians today stand far closer to the early Church = than their=20 grandparents did." It also notes that "Christianity began as a religion = of a=20 small minority existing in a predominantly non-Christian society, and = such it is=20 becoming once more." In this sense, the Church has indeed come a full=20 circle.

In spite of all the persecution of Christianity = (including that=20 which is to come), true to Christ's promise, the gates of hell will = never=20 prevail against the Church (Mt 16:18), for "the foundation of God = standeth sure"=20 (2 Tim 2:19). As the New-Martyr Tikhon (+1925), Patriarch of All Russia, = wrote=20 in this regard, Christ's Church is "a kingdom not of this world, a = kingdom that=20 has no worldly means at its disposal, no earthly enticements; a kingdom = that is=20 despised, persecuted, powerless." He added that the Church "has not only = not=20 perished in this world, but has grown and conquered the world." And he=20 concluded, "In spite of all manner of coercion, attacks and opposition, = the=20 Orthodox Church has preserved the faith of Christ as a priceless = treasure, in=20 its original purity and entirety, unharmed, so that our faith is the = faith of=20 the Apostles, the faith of the Fathers, the Orthodox faith."

2. What Scripture describes the beginning of = the history=20 of the New Testament Church?

The history of the New Testament Church begins at = Pentecost=20 (circa 33 AD), with the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the = Apostles.

And suddenly there came a sound from Heaven, as of a = rushing=20 mighty wind, and it filled the whole house where they were sitting. And = there=20 appeared to them divided tongues, as of fire, and it sat upon each of = them. And=20 they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak with other = tongues,=20 as the Holy Spirit gave them utterance (Acts 2:2-4).

Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos makes the = important=20 notation that Pentecost is the birthday of the Church from the point of = view=20 that it was then that the Church became the Body of Christ, that = Pentecost was=20 when the Church acquired substance. He goes further into the matter, = though, and=20 points out that the beginning and existence of the Church is actually = found in=20 the time before Pentecost.

The metropolitan notes that it is the teaching of the = Holy=20 Fathers that with the creation of the angels, there is the emergence of = the=20 first Church, for the angels too are members of the Church. God is the = Creator=20 of "all things visible and invisible," and among the invisible are = listed the=20 angels, who sing in praise of God. This witness is preserved in the book = of Job,=20 which states: "When the stars were born, all the angels in a loud voice = sang in=20 praise of Me" (Job 38:7). The fact that angels are members of the Church = is also=20 witnessed by the saints, many of whom saw angels worshiping with them at = the=20 Divine Liturgy.

Archimandrite Panteleimon of Jordanville goes on to = explain=20 that the name of the Church of Christ is used in two ways. In the = narrower=20 sense, he states, it is composed strictly of people professing the faith = of=20 Christ, whether they live on earth or have already parted into the = future life.=20 Those living on earth compose the kingdom of grace, the earthly or = militant=20 Church, while those departed compose the heavenly or triumphant Church. = Fr.=20 Panteleimon continues, saying that in a more general or inclusive sense, = however, the Church is a society of all free, intelligent beings, both = angels=20 and people, who believe in Christ the Saviour and are united to Him as = the=20 Church's one Head. The Apostle Paul understands the Church in this way = when he=20 instructs that God has ordained the union of all things in Heaven and on = earth=20 under Christ the Head and placed Him as the Head of the Church (Eph = 1:10,23; Col=20 1:18). The angels believe in Christ as the true God-Man. They also serve = as His=20 ministers in establishing the Church on earth, and they are sent by Him = to=20 assist every man in inheriting salvation (Heb 1:14).

Thus it can be said that the history of the Church = dates to the=20 creation of angels and the creation of men, that it continues in the Old = Testament, and that with the Incarnation of God the Word, the Church = becomes the=20 Body of Christ. One can speak of the Church in this sense.

Dr. Ivan Andreyev adds the following substantive = explanation=20 concerning the relation between the Old and New Testament periods of the = Church:

Of all the religions in the world, only the Christian = religion=20 possesses all the inner and external indications of divinely revealed = dignity=20 and possesses true prophecies and miracles. Christianity is the sole, = true,=20 divinely revealed religion. This religion is subdivided into the Old = Testament=20 and the New Testament, composing, however, one organic whole, and = represents the=20 development of one divine plan for the salvation of mankind. The = difference=20 between the Old and New Testaments lies not in its nature, but in the = degree of=20 its fullness and perfection.

The Old Testament revelation pertains to the New = Testament as a=20 preparation does to a performance; as a promise does to a fulfillment; = and as a=20 symbol does to an image. The aim of New Testament revelation was the = preparation=20 of mankind in its historic life for the acceptance of a higher Christian = revelation. This was spoken of by the Old Testament prophets themselves, = for=20 they it was who expressed the thought that the Messiah will come and = will=20 Himself announce to the people the New Covenant (see the prophecy of = Jeremiah=20 31:31-35) [Orthodox Apologetic Theology, p. 115-16].

3. Which book contains the first survey of = history in=20 the New Testament Church?

This survey is found in the Acts of the Apostles.

4. Who was the author of this book?

The Holy Evangelist Luke, a physician who was chosen = to be one=20 of the seventy disciples, wrote the Acts. This same disciple wrote his = Gospel=20 fifteen years after Christ's Ascension.

5. At what level does the Church exist in all = its=20 fullness?

The Church exists in all its fullness in each local = community=20 gathered around its bishop as it celebrates the Holy Eucharist Sunday by = Sunday.

6. What early Christian writer clearly = expresses this=20 concept in seven short letters?

This concept was expressed by an Apostolic Father, = St. Ignatius=20 the God-Bearer, Bishop-Martyr of Antioch (+107), who was the child whom = the Lord=20 took into His arms (Mt 18, Mk 9). He proclaimed the Gospel in Antioch = and became=20 the bishop of that city after the Apostle Peter. While on his way to his = martyrdom in Rome (he was fed to the lions), he wrote seven epistles to=20 Christian communities and to another Apostolic Father, St. Polycarp, a = disciple=20 of the Apostle and Evangelist John the Theologian and bishop of Smyrna = (+156).=20 These epistles contain a wealth of information on early Church dogma,=20 organization, the Divine Liturgy, and the readiness for martyrdom.

7. By what term does St. Ignatius of Antioch = refer to=20 the Holy Mysteries?

The hieromartyr refers to the Holy Mysteries = (Sacraments) as=20 "the medicine of immortality."

8. What is meant by referring to the Church as = a=20 Eucharistic Society?

St. Ignatius saw the Church in both its hierarchical = and=20 sacramental aspects, and he laid special stress on the place of the = bishop in=20 the Church, and upon the bishop's primary and distinctive task of = celebrating=20 the Holy Eucharist. For Ignatius, the Church was primarily a Eucharistic = Society=20 =97 that is, one which realizes its proper function when celebrating and = receiving=20 the Holy Mysteries (Sacraments). He emphasized that the Eucharist is = something=20 that can happen only locally in each individual community gathered = around its=20 bishop, and that the whole Christ is present at each individual = Eucharist=20 celebration. Thus the Church exists in all its fullness in each local = community=20 in the celebration of the Eucharist.

St. Ignatius=92 teaching occupies a permanent place = in the=20 tradition of the Church. Orthodoxy views the Church foremost as a = Eucharist=20 Society, for the Body and Blood of Christ are the inner life and soul of = the=20 Orthodox Church, and they are the heart and center of all Church life. = The=20 Church's lifeblood flows from the Eucharist that is celebrated at every = Liturgy.=20 To partake of this Mystery is the most important act of worship in the = Orthodox=20 Church, and to be united with it is to be united with the Head and = Founder of=20 the Church, Jesus Christ. Without Christ's divine presence in this = Mystery, the=20 Church could not achieve its earthly mission. It is in the Eucharist = that the=20 Orthodox Church has the living presence of God.

Moreover, Orthodoxy emphasizes the importance of the = local=20 community in the Church, something obvious to anyone who observes a = Pontifical=20 Liturgy in which the bishop is in the center of the Church, surrounded = by his=20 flock. To this day, Orthodoxy still retains the catholicity of the early = Church,=20 where the focus of unity is the bishop.

Concerning the word Mysteries (Greek = Mysteria)=20 that often comes up in this book, it is generally used in the Orthodox = East for=20 Sacraments. The word Sacraments (Latin Sacramenta) is the = term=20 used in the Latin West. Since the latter term originated when Rome was = still=20 fully united with Orthodoxy =97 that is, before the Great Schism of = 1054, there is=20 nothing wrong with its usage, especially since few Westerners are = familiar with=20 the word Mysteries. However, among themselves, Orthodox tend to use the = latter=20 word.

9. Who is the visible center of Church life?

The hierarchical rank is the highest rank in the = Church. Thus,=20 Orthodox bishops, like their predecessors, the Apostles, occupy the = visible=20 center of Church life. Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky explains that = Christ=20 called the Apostles to the highest ministry in the Church, = and=20 that the Apostles in turn named bishops as their immediate=20 successors and continuers. As another writer adds in this=20 connection, after Judas turned traitor, Peter, applying Psalm 109:8, = declared,=20 "his bishopric let another take" (Acts 1:20; emphasis added).

Although Apostolic Succession was severed in the West = as of=20 Rome's apostasy in 1054, it continued in the East. The Orthodox Church = is the=20 only Church in Christendom that has to this day an uninterrupted = succession of=20 bishops going back to the Apostles.

10. If each bishop and his diocese (eparchy) = can be said=20 to contain the fullness of Church life, why is it that only the entire = body of=20 the Orthodox faithful is referred to as the Church?

The student does not imagine that he "knows better" = than the=20 professor of this course, nor does he presume to consider himself an = expert on=20 Orthodoxy. All he can do is rely on the various books that teach of it. = These in=20 turn show that, on the basis of Scripture, the above assertion that = "only the=20 entire body of Orthodox faithful is referred to the Church" is = not=20 tenable.

One eminent authority, Protopresbyter Michael = Pomazansky,=20 points out that the members of one's family comprise a house = Church. This=20 term was used by the Apostle Paul when referring to the gathering of the = members=20 of a family and friends which took place during the early years of = Christianity,=20 when Christians did not have their own church buildings in which to pray = (cf.=20 Rom. 16:5-6, et al.).

The word Church is ekklesia in Greek, = which means=20 to gather, to gather together, to call, to call out, or to call = together. Thus,=20 Church means a gathering of people, a congregation. The same Fr. Michael = adds=20 that:

The name Church which belongs to every = Christian=20 community, even of a single house or family, indicates the unity of this = part=20 with the whole, with the body of the whole Church of Christ [Orthodox = Dogmatic Theology, p. 224].

In no place does Fr. Michael indicate that it is = incorrect to=20 use the word in a narrow sense (that is, with regard to a family or = individual=20 community). In fact, both he and the Apostle Paul himself variously use = the word=20 in both the narrow and the broad sense.

The word Church is always used in reference to = the four=20 ancient Patriarchates, to the eleven other autocephalous Churches = (including=20 Sinai), and also when referring to the several autonomous Churches = (including=20 China, Japan and Finland). In addition to these independent local = Churches,=20 however, the Church has a wider unity. The Church Father Cyprian, = Bishop-Martyr=20 of Carthage (+258), describes how all bishops share in the one = episcopate, yet=20 share it in such a manner that each possesses the whole rather than just = a part.=20 St. Cyprian writes:

The episcopate is a single whole, in which each = bishop enjoys=20 full possession. So the Church is a single whole, though it spreads far = and wide=20 into a multitude of Churches as its fertility increases.

There are many episcopi but only one = episcopate. There=20 are also many local Churches, yet Orthodoxy is something more than a = group of=20 local bodies that share a unity of faith and full agreement with the = rest on all=20 matters of doctrine: it is nothing less than the Church of Christ on = earth. It=20 is this wider unity of all Orthodox faithful into the Body of Christ = that is=20 also called the Church.

11. What is meant by calling the Church=20 conciliar?

The word conciliar means "of, relating to, or = generated by a=20 council" (American Heritage Dictionary). Calling the Church conciliar=20 underscores the great importance of the Church's Councils. Bishop = Alexander of Buenos Aires and South America of the Russian Church in = Exile goes=20 on to explain conciliarism as that special state in which bishops decide = Church=20 matters, first having prayed and implored the grace of the Holy Spirit. = The same=20 bishop adds that through the enlightenment and grace that overshadow = bishops=20 gathered in Councils, the most complicated questions are resolved and = decisions=20 are made which benefit the Church.

In the time of the Apostles, misunderstandings arose = in Antioch=20 regarding the applicability of the ritual law of Moses. Since there was = a need=20 to appeal to a higher authoritative voice or judgment, the Apostles = gathered in=20 a Council at Jerusalem (Acts 15), and the decrees of this Council were=20 acknowledged as obligatory for the whole Church (Acts 16:4). By means = of the=20 Council of Jerusalem, the Apostles gave an example of the = conciliar=20 resolution of the most important questions in the Church for all = times.

It is important to note here that the Apostolic = Council speaks=20 especially clearly against the supremacy of the Apostle Peter. If = one=20 were to believe the Catholic dogma of the supremacy of the Roman pope, = then the=20 Christians of Antioch should have appealed to the Apostle Peter for the=20 resolution of their perplexity. However, they appealed not to = Peter, but=20 to all the Apostles and presbyters. At this first Council, the = question=20 is subject to a general discussion, and the completion of the matter = belongs to=20 the Apostle James. From James=92 words (not Peter's), the decision of = the Council=20 is written. Also important to note is that Sacred Scripture reveals a = number of=20 weighty things that take place: Peter is sent by the Apostles (Acts = 8:19), he=20 gives an account of his actions to the Apostles and faithful = (Acts=20 11:4-18), and he also listens to their objections and even=20 denunciations (Gal 2:11-19). These facts demonstrate that = Peter was=20 not the prince of the Apostles and the head of the Church, as = the=20 Roman Catholic Church falsely teaches.

Orthodox theology strictly differentiates between the = ministry=20 of the Apostles and that of the bishops. As Bishop Alexander=20 Semonov-Tian-Shansky writes in this regard:

The significance of the Apostles was exceptional and = in many=20 ways exceeded the significance of bishops. Bishops head local Churches, = while=20 the Apostles were wandering preachers of the Gospel. An Apostle, having = founded=20 a new Church in some locale, would ordain a bishop for it and would = himself go=20 to another place to preach. In consequence of this, the Orthodox Church = does not=20 honor the Apostle Peter as the first bishop of Rome. Nonetheless, the = Holy=20 Church always allowed that among the bishops one is recognized as first = in=20 honor, but concerning his infallibility there is no discussion.

In the first centuries, the primacy of honor belonged = to the=20 Roman bishop, but after his falling away into schism, it passed to the = patriarch=20 of Constantinople [As quoted from Protopriest Victor Potapov, = Orthodoxy and=20 Heterodoxy].

From Apostolic times and throughout the subsequent = history of=20 the Church, even prior to Rome's departure from the Church in 1054, no = bishop=20 had absolute authority over any other. The Church is not and never = was=20 monarchical in structure, centered around a single bishop. Instead, = all=20 bishops work together in equality, and all consult with one another to = achieve a=20 common mind under the influence of the Holy Spirit. St. Cyprian of = Carthage=20 writes that this collegial structure (that is, where all bishops = share=20 authority) is based on divine law. If the bishop of Rome was = everywhere=20 regarded as the supreme head of the Church, as the Latin Church teaches, = why=20 were there no cries of heresy to such statements as that of St. = Cyprian?

From the witness of Church history, many Roman = Catholics=20 readily understand these facts and convert to Orthodoxy. One who did, = Michael=20 Whelton, wrote an entire book that deals with the Orthodox Church's = conciliar=20 tradition (an understanding that Rome itself adhered to prior to the = ninth=20 century), vis-=E0-vis Rome's divisive doctrine of papal monarchy. = This=20 author's well researched findings merit special attention. He correctly = observes=20 that the early Church was conciliar in its government, that = the=20 Ecumenical Councils represented the highest judicial body of the Church, = that=20 these Ecumenical Councils were not called to advise the bishop of Rome, = and that=20 the bishop of Rome did not enjoy veto power. Mr. Whelton goes on to = explain=20 that:

Nowhere in the canons or creeds of these [Ecumenical] = Councils=20 do we find any recognition of Rome's claim to supreme universal = jurisdiction.=20 None of the Church Fathers or general councils settled doctrinal = disputes by=20 appealing to an infallible pope. Claims of infallibility by a single = bishop=20 would have been incomprehensible. Furthermore, the idea that the bishop = of Rome=20 was superior to a council of the Church and that a council was = ecumenical only=20 because the bishop of Rome alone confirmed its decrees was unknown. In = fact, all=20 five patriarchs =97 [those of] Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch = and=20 Jerusalem =97 had to confirm the decrees [Two Paths: Papal Monarchy = =97 Collegial=20 Tradition, pp. 52-53].

The same writer notes that:

For at least the first thousand years, Christendom = was an=20 undivided Church governed by councils that offered a common forum for = both=20 Churches East and West to settle differences and thus provide a common = bond. It=20 is provable beyond doubt that the early Church does not point to the = office of a=20 single bishop as the living tradition of the Church, but to an = ecumenical=20 consensus or collective conscience, which is best exemplified by the = early=20 general councils. It is this model of government that is intrinsic to = the nature=20 of the Church and it is this that supplies her with enduring strength = and=20 stability [The Pearl, p. 43].

Mr. Whelton adds that:

Today the Orthodox Church is the only Church in = Christendom=20 that preserves and guards this collegial tradition; thus she rightly = calls=20 herself the Church of the Seven Ecumenical Councils.... Today = with her=20 self-governing Churches bound together in a fraternal unity, she = presents=20 herself to the world just as the early Church did [Ibid., pp. = 43-44].

(In the Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, the = Roman=20 Curia was created by Pope Sixtus V [the "iron pope"] in the sixteenth = century in=20 order to crush the influence of cardinals and bishops. It is of = interest=20 to observe that in April of 2002, when the American cardinals were = summoned to=20 the Vatican in response to a scandal in the Latin Church, the cardinals=20 complained that they were treated not like bishops, but like altar boys, = by the=20 pope. At that time, the cardinals were clamoring for less dictatorship, = and a=20 more conciliar approach to resolving matters).

The Orthodox Church believes that the council is = the chief=20 means by which God has chosen to guide His flock. Protopresbyter = Michael=20 Pomazansky explains that the highest organ of authority in the Church, = and the=20 highest authority in general, is a council of bishops. For a local = Church, it is=20 a council of its local bishops, and for the Ecumenical Church, a council = of=20 bishops made up of representatives of independent local Churches, in = conformity=20 with the Thirty-Fourth Canon of the Holy Apostles.

12. By what name is the first Council of the Holy = Church=20 called?

It is known as the Council of Jerusalem, or the = Apostolic=20 Council.

13. Where are the details of this Council=20 recorded?

The details of the Council of Jerusalem are recorded = in the=20 Acts of the Apostles. Acts 15:1-5 describes the open opposition to St. = Paul's=20 teaching by the salvation-by-faith-and-circumcision party. So vital an = issue as=20 Christianity's entering into the Gentile world under the veil of Judaism = had to=20 have an authoritative decision by the Apostles and elders in order to = avoid a=20 split. Acts 15:6-21 goes on to describe the debate of the issue and its = final=20 resolution.

14. Where did the Council take place?

The Council took place in Jerusalem, whence its = name.

15. What was the major question debated at the = first=20 Council of the Holy Church?

The Council of Jerusalem convened about 50 AD to = decide the=20 extent to which newly converted Gentiles would have to subject = themselves to the=20 requirements of Mosaic law. It was decided that non-Jews who turned to = God=20 should not be troubled with the rigorous precepts of the law of Moses, = save in=20 certain social matters so the Church could meet as one. This Council = then made=20 its decision known through letters to all the Christian Churches.

This first Council is significant for two reasons: 1) = through=20 it, the Christian Church became a Universal Church whose mission was no = longer=20 restricted to the Jewish people; and 2) the Council set the precedent = for Church=20 leaders to meet in Councils in future internal and external = conflicts.

It is important to note here that when a decision = has to be=20 made, the Apostle Peter was not asked for his single-minded decision, as = if he=20 were an "infallible" pope. Instead, a Council of Apostles was = convened.

16. What event in 312 AD resulted in some = major=20 developments in the administrative structure of the visible facet of the = Church?

312 AD was the year that St. Constantine had his = famous vision=20 of the Cross in front of the sun, along with the inscription in this = sign=20 conquer emblazoned in the sky. With this vision, Constantine placed = the=20 Christian symbol of the chi rho (XP) on the weapons and = tunics of=20 his troops and went on to win a battle. This vision and his victory in = battle=20 led to Constantine's becoming the first Roman emperor to embrace the = Christian=20 religion, and to his putting an end to the persecution of the Church. = These=20 events marked the end of the first main period of Christianity and = marked the=20 Church's coming of age.

Because the pious monarchs Constantine and his mother = Helen=20 spread the Christian faith like the Apostles, the Church gives both = saints the=20 title Holy Rulers, Equal-to-the-Apostles. The title=20 Equal-to-the-Apostles was given as well to saints who spread the=20 Christian faith in various places: Mary Magdalene, the first woman = martyr=20 Thecla, the pious Russian prince Vladimir, St. Nina, who was the = Enlightener of=20 Georgia, and others.

17. Give the understanding you derived from = this chapter=20 concerning the position of the bishop in the Church.

(A more complete development on the position of the = bishop in=20 the Church will be given in chapter ten).

18. What questions did this chapter raise in = your mind=20 and then leave unanswered?

The Council of Jerusalem assembled the leaders of the = Church=20 and its decisions were subsequently approved by the entire Church in all = places=20 and times. Why is the Council of Jerusalem not considered the first of = the=20 Ecumenical Councils?

[Professor's addendum: The Apostolic Council was not=20 ecumenical, but was local in nature. The Church had not yet reached the=20 ecumene but was essentially Palestinian (in a broad sense). It = seems that=20 no one but Jewish (Palestinian) Christians actually participated in the = Council,=20 and only James, the bishop of Jerusalem, had an actual see. Because it = consisted=20 of the Apostles, it is given a higher calling than a local council and = is called=20 the Apostolic Council].

 

2. Byzantium and the Church of = the=20 Seven

Councils.

 

1. What is meant by the term the Church of the = Seven=20 Councils?

The Church of the Seven Councils is another name for = the=20 Orthodox Church. This title emphasizes the immense importance that = Orthodoxy=20 attaches to the Seven Ecumenical Councils, those giant = foundations of the=20 Christian faith. As John II, Metropolitan of Russia (1080-89) stated, = "All=20 profess that there are seven holy and Ecumenical Councils, and these are = the=20 seven pillars of faith of the Divine Word on which He erected His holy = mansion,=20 the Catholic [i.e., Universal] and Ecumenical Church."

2. What is necessary in order for a council to = be=20 canonical?

To be canonical, a council must be accepted and = certified by=20 the local Churches and by a subsequent general council.

3. What is necessary in order for a council to = be=20 ecumenical?

An Ecumenical Council starts out as a general council = =97 that=20 is, a council in which all Orthodox bishops of all Orthodox communities = gather=20 to solve problems pressing to the entire Church. When the decisions = reached in=20 such a council are accepted by the entire Church in all places and = times, and=20 when the decisions are certified by a subsequent general council, the = council is=20 then termed ecumenical.

4. What is meant by the expression the = conscience=20 of the Church?

The conscience of the Church is the inspiration of = the Holy=20 Spirit.

5. What age, according to the textbook, = ended=20 with the con of Constantine?

The textbook states that Constantine's conversion = brought an=20 end to the age of martyrs. This emperor's recognition of Christianity = stands as=20 a watershed in the history of the Church, for under him, Christianity = received=20 legal status in the Roman Empire, and this development supported the = spread of=20 Christianity throughout the Roman world. Under Constantine, the Church = of the=20 catacombs became the Church of the Empire.

However, while Constantine's conversion did bring = about a=20 radical transformation in the relations between the Christian Church and = the=20 Roman state (and Orthodox Christianity =97 not Roman Catholicism = =97 was the=20 Church of the Roman Empire and of the known earth), the age of = martyrs did=20 not end in the fourth century. Since that time, millions of martyrs = have=20 been tormented and killed for the truth of Christ's Holy Church, and = Orthodox=20 Christianity has been persecuted unendingly. As noted in the previous = chapter,=20 one can cite any number of large-scale martyrdoms throughout Church = history; the=20 one preceding Constantine's reign was but one. In fact, after Byzantium, = under=20 the boot of the Turks, the Unia, and finally Communism, Orthodoxy = suffered=20 near-continual martyrdom and was largely taken up with matters of simple = survival. Such is the Orthodox Church =97 crucified, yet having the = glory of the=20 Resurrected Christ; poor, yet having within a priceless treasure.

6. What transition in the external life of the = Church=20 occurred at this time?

In the early days of Christianity, in order to = worship God,=20 Christians had to leave the city at night and go into caves. Even there, = however, they were not safe. When they were discovered, the authorities = would=20 block the cave's entrance and would collect brush and set it on fire, = thereby=20 killing those inside.

In addition to legalizing Christianity, Constantine = moved the=20 seat of the empire eastward from Italy to the shores of the Bosphorus, = calling=20 this city Nea Romi (New Rome), although people referred to it as = Constantine=92s=20 City, or Constantinople. From the moment that the Christian Empire was=20 established, the center of the world=92s life was shifted from ancient = Rome to=20 Constantinople, the latter of which became the symbolic center of = Christianity.=20 Old Rome thus joined Constantinople, New Rome, the former city of = Byzantium, and=20 a primacy of honor, one that was recognized by the Second Ecumenical = Council,=20 came to be shared by these two great capitals.

Two Greek hierarchs explain the purpose of the Roman = Empire,=20 and they give a highly refined assessment of the first Christian = emperor, a view=20 that is sadly lacking in Western accounts, particularly in the = historiographies=20 of the Protestant world. They explain that:

For the Byzantine, the empire, as the structure into = which the=20 Church was integrated, was not a power that, because of increasing = strength and=20 numbers in Christianity, had capitulated to this new force. It existed = for the=20 very purpose of accommodating the Christian Church. Thus the Emperor = Constantine=20 was genuinely enlightened from within to favor the Christian religion, = having=20 been convinced of its power by a miraculous image of the Holy Cross that = promised him victory in battle. His participation in the theological = debates and=20 dialogues that helped safeguard and standardize the Christian beliefs = and=20 traditions which had reached his age from the time of the Apostles was,=20 therefore, not =97 as prevailing historical theories would have it =97 = an attempt to=20 sway the Christian Church towards a theology of his liking. His = participation=20 grew out of his internal knowledge and acceptance of the divinely = ordained role=20 of the Roman Empire in the spreading of Christianity. It was not a life = of piety=20 or a martyric confession of Christianity that ultimately makes the = Emperor=20 Constantine what he is. His simple acknowledgement of his role and the = role of=20 the empire in the Christian scheme made him a saint, an = Equal-to-the-Apostles =97=20 the human through whom the divine mission of Christianity was made = manifest=20 [Archbishop Chrysostomos of Etna and Bishop Auxentios of Photiki, The = Roman=20 West and the Byzantine East, p. 22].

It is important to pause on St. Constantine, for a = common=20 Protestant misconception of Church history is that the Church fell into = apostasy=20 from the time of Constantine to the Reformation. A former Protestant = minister=20 who converted to Orthodoxy, Fr. John Whiteford, comments that in reply, = it can=20 be stated that had the Church ceased for even one day, then the gates of = hell=20 would have prevailed against it on that day, something contrary to = Christ's=20 promise (Mt 16:18). Moreover, the same author continues, if the Church = did=20 indeed cease for a period of time,

...when Christ described the growth of the Church in = His=20 parable of the mustard seed (Mt 13:31-12), He should have spoken of a = plant that=20 started to grow but was squashed, and in its place a new seed sprouted = later on.=20 Instead, He used the imagery of a mustard seed that begins small, but = steadily=20 grows into the largest of garden plants [Sola Scriptura: an Orthodox = Analysis=20 of the Cornerstone of Reformation Theology, p. 19].

That the Church did not cease to exist at the time of = Constantine is also shown to be false inasmuch as Christ is the Head of = the=20 Church (Eph. 4:15-16), the Church is His Body (Eph. 1:22-23), and = because Christ=20 promised to be with the Church "even unto the end of the world" (Mt = 28:20). Fr.=20 John points out that Christ did not promise that His Church would be = prosperous=20 or the most numerous of religions; in fact, He promised the opposite (Mt = 7:13-14, 10:22; Jn 15:20). Neither did Christ promise that there would = be no=20 sinners in the Church (Mt 13:47-50), or that it would not have to = contend with=20 false shepherds or wolves in sheep's clothing (Jn 10:1,12,13). Christ = did=20 promise, however, an abiding and ultimately triumphant Church that would = have=20 His abiding presence and that would be guided into all Truth by the Holy = Spirit=20 (Jn 16:13). If the Church had indeed fallen into apostasy from the time = of=20 Constantine to the Reformation, then these and many other scriptural = passages=20 would be rendered meaningless, Fr. John concludes.

Now that the Church was out of the catacombs, = churches began to=20 be built above ground. Some of the first churches constructed were over = the holy=20 sites in Palestine where Christ had lived. The Emperor Constantine and = the=20 Empress Helen, his mother, built a massive church in honor of the = Resurrection=20 of Christ, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. They also built churches on = the=20 Mount of Olives in Bethlehem, and in Hebron at the Oak of Mamre. Later, = in the=20 sixth century, St. Catherine's Monastery was built on Mount Sinai over = the site=20 of the burning bush, near the place where Moses received the Ten = Commandments.=20 Most of these buildings serve to this day as Orthodox churches and=20 monasteries.

Also during this new time of freedom and rest for the = Church,=20 the Emperor Constantine called a Council of bishops to gather from the = four=20 corners of the world. Modeled after the Council in the time of the = Apostles, it=20 was the first of seven Ecumenical Councils in the history of the Church. = This=20 First Ecumenical Council held at Nicaea, as well as the Second = Ecumenical=20 Council of Constantinople, articulated the Creed of Christianity, the=20 Nicaeo-Constantinopolitan Symbol of Faith, or Nicene Creed (also called = the=20 Creed), so that there would be one confession of the faith and not = different=20 interpretations. This Creed ("I believe in One God...") is a concise = summary of=20 all the truths of the Christian faith, and it is sung at every Divine = Liturgy=20 and recited in several other places in the daily services of the = Orthodox=20 Church. The Ecumenical Councils themselves acknowledge the Creed as = being=20 primary and fundamental among all the doctrinal decrees of the Councils, = and=20 they forbade any changes whatsoever in it, not only in its ideas, but = also in=20 its words, either by addition or subtraction. Whoever does not accept = the truths=20 of the Creed is not an Orthodox Christian.

This new period likewise became a time to articulate = the=20 beliefs of the faith and to choose the books that would comprise the = standard of=20 Scripture. Before the First Ecumenical Council, there was no universally = accepted New Testament canon of Scripture, and thus no Bible. There were = accounts of Christ's life by the four Evangelists, and many epistles = from=20 several of the Apostles such as Paul and Peter. There were also the = letters and=20 writings of the disciples of the Apostles such as Saints Ignatius, = Clement,=20 Dionysius and others. One of the persons instrumental in the First = Ecumenical=20 Council was St. Athanasius of Alexandria, who is responsible for the = canon of=20 the New Testament Scriptures that we have today.

Christianity began to flourish once the Church came = above=20 ground. The new freedom allowed the perfection of liturgical music = (chant) and=20 the refinement of religious art (iconography), and Christian literature=20 proliferated. In short, the Church became the center of every aspect of=20 life.

7. What was the Edict of Milan in 313 = AD?

The Edict of Milan, issued by Constantine and his = fellow=20 emperor Licinius in 313 AD, officially proclaimed the toleration of the=20 Christian faith. Christians were no longer regarded as religious and = political=20 criminals in the Roman Empire.

8. To what limits did Constantine carry his = toleration=20 of the Christian Church?

Although Constantine initially showed no more than = toleration=20 of the Christian faith, he soon came to favor it above all the other = tolerated=20 religions of the empire.

9. Emperor Theodosius carried this toleration = to its=20 final conclusion with what act?

The emperor enacted legislation that made = Christianity the only=20 recognized religion of the empire. "Your faith is the victory which = defeats the=20 world" (1 Jn 5:4), the Holy Apostle and Evangelist John wrote in the = first=20 century, and now his words were fulfilled.

10. What two further consequences of = Constantine=92s con=20 occurred during his lifetime, which were to affect the later = developments of the=20 Christian world?

Constantine created New Rome, Constantinople, out of = motives=20 that were in part economic and political, but which were also religious: = Old=20 Rome was too deeply stained with pagan associations to be the center of = the=20 Christianized Roman Empire. He also summoned the first General Council = of the=20 Christian Church.

11. Give at least one effect which the = movement of the=20 capital to the East had.

An important effect of moving the capital to the East = was that=20 the seat of the new Christian Empire was taken away from the heathen=20 associations of Old Rome. No pagan rites were ever to be performed in = the New=20 Rome.

12. What was the primary purpose for which = Constantine=20 called together the first General Council?

The textbook for this course notes that Constantine = wanted the=20 Roman Empire to be a Christian empire based upon the Orthodox faith. To = this=20 end, he convened the Nicene Council to clarify and elaborate the = fundamental=20 doctrines of Christianity.

More specifically, the First Ecumenical Council was = convoked=20 against the false teaching of Arius, which denied the truth that "in Him = [Christ] dwelleth all the fullness of the Godhead bodily" (Col 2:9). = This=20 Council anathematized both the Arian heresy that disturbed the whole = Christian=20 world, and Arius, the corrupter of faith. It also anathematized those = who=20 maintained that there was a time when the Son of God did not exist, and = those=20 who maintained that He was created or that He is of a different essence = from God=20 the Father. While Arius falsely taught that the Son of God was not the = Creator=20 but was a created being, the First Ecumenical Council affirmed that = the Son=20 of God is of the same nature as God the Father.

The First Ecumenical Council also composed the = Church's Symbol=20 of Faith, the Creed, which was confirmed and completed later at the = Second=20 Ecumenical Council. The unity and equality of the Son of God with God = the Father=20 was expressed in this Creed by the words: "of one essence with the=20 Father."

Concerning God the Father's Only-Begotten Son, the = Eternal God=20 before the Ages, Jesus Christ, Hieromonk Damascene Christensen explains = that by=20 means of the term begotten in Christ's words and in the Creed, = the=20 existence of the Son is shown to be above any kind of creatureliness, = above=20 something created. An existence which comes from the essence of = God can=20 only be divine and eternal. That which is begotten is always of the same = essence=20 as that which begets. However, that which is created and made is of = another,=20 lower essence, and it is external with relation to the Creator.

The same writer goes on to explain that the Son was = begotten=20 before the creation of Heaven and earth. Created things are made at a = certain=20 time, but the Son, coming directly from the essence of the Father, was = begotten=20 outside time, in eternity. In other words, there was a time when created = things=20 did not exist, but there was never a time when the Only-Begotten Son did = not=20 exist.

Fr. Damascene also states that Christ Himself = referred to His=20 eternal begetting when He called Himself "the Only-Begotten = Son of=20 God" (Jn 3:18), and He spoke of His eternal existence when He said: = "Before=20 Abraham was, I am," and, "Father... You loved Me before the = foundation of=20 the world" (Jn 8:58; 14:24).

13. What aim inspired the discussion at the=20 Councils?

The Councils were inspired by the purpose of man's=20 salvation.

14. What were the Councils mainly concerned with=20 safeguarding?

The Councils were concerned with safeguarding the = message of=20 redemption, the central message of the Orthodox faith. As Protopresbyter = Michael=20 Pomazansky writes: "From the first days of her existence, the Holy = Church of=20 Christ has ceaselessly been concerned that her children, her members, = should=20 stand firm in the pure truth." [Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, p. = 22.] With=20 this purpose in mind, the Councils defended the ancient teaching of the = Church=20 against the false teachings of the heretics.

The prefatory notes to this theology course = additionally=20 explain that:

This chapter concerns the Councils through which the = Holy=20 Spirit delivered to us the understanding of the Gospel message and the = ordering=20 of the life of the Church. Of course, the meaning of the teachings of = Christ and=20 the Apostles was well understood within the Church before the Councils, = but the=20 explanations of them had never been set forth in clearly written form = for the=20 guidance of all mankind. Essentially, the Councils met to discuss and = give a=20 correct interpretation of Scripture in the face of some self-willed, = private=20 interpretations which had been built into dangerous heresies, often = having been=20 mixed with pagan philosophies. The Councils of the bishops of the whole = Church=20 were called, and the Holy Spirit guided them as a whole in correctly = setting=20 forth the true meaning of the Gospel message.

15. There are two types of Councils within the = Church.=20 What are they called?

From profound Christian antiquity, local = councils of=20 separate Orthodox Churches gathered twice a year, in accordance with the = Thirty-Seventh Canon of the Holy Apostles. This canon states: "Let there = be a=20 meeting of the bishops twice a year, and let them examine among = themselves the=20 decrees concerning religion and settle the ecclesiastical controversies = which=20 may have occurred...." [Eerdmans Seven Ecumenical Councils, p. = 596].=20 Local councils were attended by all the bishops of a particular province = of the=20 Roman Empire. These councils would ordinarily convene in a provincial = capital=20 and would be presided over by the bishop of the capital, the = metropolitan. These=20 assemblies, as the canon states, had as their purpose the bishops' = giving their=20 opinions on problems that arose =97 that is, local problems. (Although = not=20 mentioned in the textbook, Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky notes that = often in=20 the history of the Church there were also councils of regional bishops=20 representing a wider area than individual Churches). The textbook goes = on to=20 list general councils in which bishops from the whole Orthodox = Church,=20 both East and West, gathered in order to reach a common mind with regard = to=20 problems pressing to the entire Church. Included in these general = councils are=20 the Ecumenical Councils. The same Fr. Michael explains that when the = decisions=20 reached in general councils are approved and accepted into the Tradition = of the=20 Church by the confirmation of the bishops at a subsequent general = council, the=20 councils then received the title Oikoumenkie Synodos (Ecumenical = Synods),=20 from oikoumenikos, meaning from all the inhabited earth =97 that = is, the=20 land which belonged to the Graeco-Roman civilization.

16. What does the author of the textbook mean = by saying=20 that these Councils fulfilled a double task?

The textbook introduces the discussion of the = Ecumenical=20 Councils with the popular =97 though erroneous =97 idea that = these Councils=20 "defined once and for all the Church's teaching upon the fundamental = teachings=20 of the Christian faith" (emphasis added). Actually, as Protopresbyter = Georges=20 Vasilievich Florovsky explains, the Ecumenical Councils defended = what the=20 Church has always known to be the truth [Bible, Church, Tradition: an = Eastern=20 Orthodox View, vol. 1 of The Collected Works of Georges Florovsky, = pp.=20 96-97].

In addition, the Councils worked out the Church's = visible=20 organization. The local Churches were placed under the jurisdiction of=20 ecclesiastical provinces, and the position of the five Patriarchates was = defined.

17. Did the bishops explain the mysteries of = God (that=20 is, the Trinity, the Incarnation, etc.) at the Council?

The bishops did not explain and never imagined they = had=20 explained the mysteries of God; they merely drew a fence around them. = That is,=20 they excluded certain false ideas about them so that people would not = fall into=20 error and heresy.

Such is apophatic or negative theology. While=20 cataphatic or positive theology proceeds by affirmations, = apophatic=20 theology proceeds by negations. Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos = explains=20 that the Holy Fathers used apophatic language to demonstrate the = incapability of=20 the mind to understand and express God, and that they transcended = philosophy by=20 means of apophatic theology and apophatic expressions. St. Gregory the=20 Theologian (+390), for example, says: "It is impossible to express God = and even=20 more impossible to conceive Him."

As Hieromonk Damascene Christensen goes on to add, = St. Maximus=20 the Confessor (+662) states in his Mystagogy that we can use both = affirmative and negative expression about God. By the first, His = existence is=20 affirmed, and by the second, His transcendence is shown in relation to = His=20 created works. However, as St. Maximus also states, the being of God is = simple,=20 unknowable and inaccessible to man and altogether impossible to = interpret,=20 because it is beyond all affirmation or negation.

Fr. Damascene continues, noting that the ancient = Christian=20 writers say that although we can apply to God such terms as Essence, = Being, Mind=20 or Thought, we have to understand that ultimately, God is beyond all = these. The=20 expression of St. John of Damascus (+750) is characteristic:

All that we can say affirmatively about God does not = show His=20 essence, but only what relates to His essence. And if you should ever = speak of=20 good, or justice, or wisdom, or something else of the sort, you are not=20 describing the essence of God, but only things relating to His essence=20 [Orthodox Faith, p. 172].

The same Holy Father also writes that:

The Divinity, then, is limitless and = incomprehensible, and His=20 limitlessness and incomprehensibility are all that can be understood = about Him.=20 All that we state affirmatively about God does not show His nature, but = only=20 what relates to His nature.

Fr. Damascene explains that because the mystery of = the Holy=20 Trinity has to do with the essence of God, it is ultimately = incomprehensible not=20 only to human beings, but to angels as well. St. Gregory the Theologian = says=20 that it would be impossible to speak of God's essence,

... even if you were a Moses... to Pharaoh, even if = you were=20 caught up like Paul to the third Heaven and heard unspeakable words, = even if you=20 were raised above them both and exalted to angelic or archangelic place = and=20 dignity. For though a thing be all heavenly, or above Heaven, and far = higher in=20 nature and nearer to God than we, yet it is farther distant from God, = and from=20 the complete comprehension of His essence, than it is lifted above our = complex=20 and lowly and earthly-sinking composition [Second Theological = Oration, p.=20 289].

18. How can man break down the wall of sin = which=20 separates him from God?

Of his own efforts, man cannot break down this = separation.

19. What is the central message of the = Orthodox=20 Christian faith?

Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos makes this = matter clear=20 and understandable by giving some needed preliminary information. He = states that=20 nowhere in Holy Scriptures does it appear that God is reconciled with = men, but=20 that Christ reconciles man to God. Moreover, the metropolitan notes, it = appears=20 in the whole of patristic Tradition that God is never opposed to man, = but man=20 opposed himself to God by having no communion or participation with Him. = Thus,=20 man makes God his enemy, but God does not make man His enemy. Through = the sin=20 which he commits, man sees God in an angry and hostile way.

Orthodox Christianity's central message is that God = the Son has=20 taken the initiative in breaking down the wall of separation that man's=20 sinfulness created between God and man. The human race from the start = had fallen=20 away from the divine life by embracing sin, and it had fallen under the = power of=20 death. However, some two thousand years ago, in an act of self-emptying = and=20 abasement, God the Son directly intervened in human history by becoming=20 incarnate. By His Incarnation, death on the Cross and Resurrection from = death,=20 Christ destroyed the power that death had over mankind. Through His = teaching and=20 His whole saving work, Christ reconciled to God a humanity that had = grown=20 distant from God and enslaved in sins, and He abolished the authority = that the=20 devil had acquired over men. By bridging the abyss that separates men = from God,=20 and through the union of man and God in His own Person, Christ opened = the way to=20 eternal life in Heaven for all who would accept it =97 that is, He = enabled people=20 to find eternal life and happiness with Him.

In connection with this message, Nicholas Cabasilas, = the great=20 Byzantine theologian of the fourteenth century, makes these additional=20 comments:

Though men were triply separated from God =97 by = nature, by sin=20 and by death =97 yet the Saviour made them to attain to Him perfectly = and to be=20 immediately united to Him by successively removing all obstacles. The = first=20 barrier He removed by partaking of manhood, the second by being put to = death on=20 the Cross. As for the final barrier, the tyranny of death, He eliminated = it=20 completely from our nature by rising again [The Life in Christ, = p.=20 106].

Concerning the Theanthropos (God-Man) Christ = and His=20 ability to save people, He is the Pre-Eternal God (Jn 1:1-3). He = is=20 consubstantial (of one essence, one nature) with the = Un-Originate=20 Father, and He is equal with the Father in authority and = honor (Jn=20 5:17-24). Christ is the Only-Begotten Son of the Father (Jn = 3:16), He is=20 the Almighty Logos of the Father, and He is the Lord of = All (Phil=20 2:9-11).

20. Why are heresies considered = dangerous?

The doctrinal teaching of Christ's Church was = composed and=20 ratified by the Seven Ecumenical Councils. These Councils, representing = the=20 voice of the whole Church, represent the voice of Truth, for the Church = is "the=20 pillar and ground of the Truth" (1 Tim 3:15), and the Church as a whole = cannot=20 err. If the whole Church were to fall into error, it would mean that the = gates=20 of hell had prevailed against it, something Christ promised could not = happen (Mt=20 16:18).

In order to enter into communion with God and be = saved (and the=20 goal of our life is the attainment of eternal blessedness), we must come = to know=20 God in some measure. "This is life eternal, that they might know Thee, = the only=20 true God, and Jesus Christ, Whom Thou hast sent" (Jn 17:3). God is Truth = (Jn=20 14:6), and one must worship Him "in spirit and in truth" (Jn 4:23-24). = Every=20 falsehood is contrary to truth, and a person who has a wrong = understanding about=20 God does not know Him. The acceptance of a false teaching about God also = deprives people of oneness of mind with other Christians and causes a = spiritual=20 separation from them. Obedience to the Church requires that we hold the = true=20 dogmas, like other Christians. If a person is disobedient by holding = false=20 beliefs, he is separated from the Church and from Christ Himself, Who is = its=20 Head. As Christ said, "If a man neglect to hear the Church, let him be = unto thee=20 as a heathen and a publican" (Mt 18:17). Moreover, with the acceptance = of=20 falsehood, a person is unnoticeably led into subjection by the devil, = who is=20 falsehood and the father of lies (Jn 8:44). A stubborn persistence in = falsehood=20 ultimately makes people its slave, and if they remain stubborn and = unrepentant,=20 they are deprived of eternal salvation. Therefore, in questions of = doctrine, the=20 importance of holding the Church's correct teachings, and the danger of=20 accepting the false teachings of heretics, were so great that there are=20 countless examples of true Christians who preferred exile, cruel torture = and=20 death, rather than renouncing the Church's Truth through the acceptance = of some=20 kind of false teaching.

The word heresy comes from the Greek = hairoumai,=20 to choose. A heretic is one who chooses his own beliefs over the = Church's=20 divinely revealed Truth. Heresies are dangerous and require condemnation = because=20 they deny God's revelation, and through the use of philosophy and = conjecture, they use the words of the Holy Spirit against the Holy=20 Spirit.

This human reason misled by the devil is = deadly. As Fr.=20 Kyril Zaits explains in this connection, the primordial enemy, the = devil, does=20 not lead people astray by presenting them with grossly blatant = falsehoods or=20 with an initial rejection of Christianity. Instead, he begins with a = shred of=20 truth, labels it "Christian," and then, attracting their attention, = presents=20 them with just enough truth to entice them to follow him. Afterwards, by = ever=20 graduating degrees, the devil introduces open falsehoods = while=20 nurturing the pride which leads deceived people to create their own = false=20 teaching. As Fr. Paul Volmensky goes on to add, if right belief = saves a man,=20 then disbelief is the lethal weapon of the devil. He spreads his deadly = poison=20 through heresies and moral depravity, fabricating lies with utter = cunning,=20 almost indomitable, psychology. The devil has continuously waged war = against=20 Christ's Church through this means, through heresies. He especially used = them,=20 though, after he was unable to defeat Christianity from without, from=20 persecution on the part of the pagan Roman authorities.

All heresies twist the truth of the revelation of the = Church=20 and impair the teaching of the New Testament, and all of them distort=20 ecclesiology. Since the Church is the Body of Christ (Eph. 1:22-23), = every=20 alteration in the teaching about Christ, about the Holy Spirit, about = the way of=20 man's salvation, also has ecclesiastical consequences. The blasphemous = wisdom of=20 heresies causes great damage for the Christian world because falling = into heresy=20 separates people from God, it severs them from the Holy Church, and it = has been=20 the reason for spiritual and moral falls. Moreover, as Metropolitan = Hierotheos=20 of Nafpaktos explains, heresies reverse the way of man's cure for = reaching deification, and they setup a barrier between man and = God,=20 leaving people permanently without a cure, without hope of cure or=20 salvation. And ultimately, heresies cause the eternal death of the = souls of=20 those who follow heretics.

In his book The River of Fire, Dr. Alexander = Kalomiros=20 poses the questions, What was the instrument of the devil's slandering = God? What=20 means did the devil use in order to convince humanity, in order to = pervert human=20 thought? The author answers:

[The devil] used theology. He first introduced = a slight=20 alteration in theology which, once it was accepted, he managed to = increase more=20 and more to the degree that [Western] Christianity became completely=20 unrecognizable. This is what we call Western theology [Emphasis=20 added].

Dr. Kalomiros correctly discerns that Western = theology's=20 "principal characteristic is that it considers God as the real = cause of=20 evil." He notes that "Catholics and most Protestants consider death = as a=20 punishment from God." He goes on to state that:

Some Protestants consider death not as punishment but = as=20 something natural. But is not God the Creator of all natural things? So = in both=20 cases, God =97 for them =97 is the real cause of death.

/.../ The "God" of the West is an offended and angry = God, full=20 of wrath for the disobedience of men, Who desires in His destructive=20 passion to torment all humanity into eternity for their sins, = unless=20 He received an infinite satisfaction for His offended pride.

What is the Western dogma of salvation? Did not God = kill God in=20 order to satisfy His pride, which the Westerners euphemistically = call=20 justice? [Emphasis added].

Western theology concludes that "salvation... is to = be saved=20 from the hands of God!" Dr. Kalomiros writes.

Fr. George Macris explains that in Orthodox theology, = the Cross=20 was not a necessity imposed upon God, nor was the blood of = the=20 Only-Begotten Son a source of satisfaction to God the Father, as the = Latin=20 scholastics teach. The matter of "satisfying the justice of God" is a = phrase=20 nowhere to be found in Scriptures nor in the writings of the Holy = Fathers;=20 instead, it was a fabrication of Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1100) = that=20 appeared after the Latin Church severed itself from Christ's Church in = 1054.=20 This false doctrine was later developed by Thomas Aquinas to = become the=20 official soteriological doctrine of the Latin West.

Explaining how most Westerners anthropomorphize God, = or project=20 sinful qualities in fallen men onto God, Dr. Kalomiros adds:

This juridical conception of God, this completely=20 distorted interpretation of God's justice, was nothing else than = the=20 projection of human passions on theology. It was a return to the = pagan=20 process of humanizing God and deifying man. Men are vexed = and=20 angered when not taken seriously and consider it a humiliation which = only=20 vengeance can remove, whether it is by crime or by duel. This was = the=20 worldly, passionate conception of justice....

Western Christians thought about God's justice in the = same way=20 also; God, the infinite Being, was infinitely insulted by Adam's=20 disobedience. He decided that the guilt of Adam's disobedience descended = equally=20 to all His children, and that all were to be sentenced to = death=20 for Adam's sin, which they did not commit. God's justice for Westerners = operated=20 like a vendetta. Not only the man who insulted you, but also all = his=20 family, must die. And what was tragic for men, to the point of=20 helplessness, was that no man, not even all humanity, could = appease God's=20 insulted dignity, even if all men in history were to be=20 sacrificed. God's dignity could be saved only if He could = punish=20 someone of the same dignity as He. So in order to save both God's = dignity and=20 mankind, there was no other solution than the incarnation of His Son, so = that a=20 man of Godly dignity could be sacrificed to save God's honor = [Emphasis=20 added].

The Western theological concept of God's justice is = not=20 Christian; rather it is a pagan concept that makes God = the=20 source of all our misfortunes. Such a justice is not = justice at=20 all, for it punishes people who are completely innocent of = the sin=20 of their forefathers. Dr. Kalomiros therefore concludes:

What Westerners call justice ought rather to be = called=20 resentment and vengeance of the worst kind. Even Christ's = love and=20 sacrifice lose their significance and logic in this schizoid notion = of a God=20 Who kills God in order to satisfy the so-called justice of = God=20 [Emphasis added].

In his book The Mind of the Orthodox Church,=20 Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos likewise gives a careful and = elaborate=20 explanation of the Western concept of God. He writes that:

It is sinful to ascribe to God the = characteristic=20 features of fallen man, such as that God is angry and=20 vengeful and therefore He must be propitiated and = appeased.=20 Such an attitude wants to make it appear that it is God Who needs curing = and not=20 man. But this is sacrilegious. The sinful man who is = characterized by=20 egoism and arrogance is offended. St. John Chrysostom says = characteristically: "It is not He Who is at enmity, but we; for God = is never=20 at enmity." We cannot say that God is man's enemy, but that man, by = the sin=20 which he has committed, has become an enemy of God. Consequently, sin is = not an=20 offense to God, Who must be cured, but our own illness, and therefore we = have=20 need of a cure [p. 170; emphasis added].

The metropolitan continues:

By His sacrifice on the Cross, Christ did not = propitiate the=20 Father, but He cured the ailing nature of man. And this is said = not=20 solely about the sacrifice on the Cross, but about the whole work of the = divine=20 economia.... It is blasphemous for us to maintain that God the = Father=20 would be pleased to have the blood of His Only-Begotten = Son. What=20 is unthinkable even on the human level is much more = unthinkable=20 for God.... St. Gregory [the Theologian] says that the Father neither = asked nor=20 needed the blood of His Only-Begotten Son. But Christ offered it in = order to=20 cure man and to sanctify him [pp. 171-72; emphasis = added].

The metropolitan sums up his explanation with the = notion=20 that:

The [Latin] teaching... about the propitiation of = divine=20 justice has direct consequences in the spiritual life, because = the whole=20 ascetic effort is to cure God and not man, to satisfy God's = justice....=20 The Latins' whole effort is towards justifying themselves, appeasing = God,=20 and not toward their own cure [pp. 172-73]. /.../ The = legalistic=20 view is alien to the Orthodox mind. When we think that God has been = offended=20 by the sin which we commit and that we must therefore do everything to = appease=20 Him, when our relationship with God is put on a business basis, = then we=20 are living in the legalistic spirit [p. 175; emphasis added].

The Western tendency to ascribe fallen, sinful = qualities to God=20 is anthropomorphic. It is a human projection, a human = invention.=20 In no way is such a "God" the God of revelation, the God Who = revealed=20 Himself to the prophets, Apostles and Fathers. (Thus, many in the West = have not=20 actually thrown God out of their lives, for they have never known Him. = Instead,=20 they have discarded only the Western "God," a non-existent "God.")

Given the utterly disastrous falsehood that Satan = engendered in=20 the Latino-Protestant world through heresies, the danger of false = teachings is all the more obvious.

21. How does St. Athanasius sum up the purpose = of the=20 Incarnation?

St. Athanasius states that "God became man that we = might become=20 god."

22. What is meant by the doctrine of=20 theosis?

The Greek Fathers, taking a number of scriptural = passages in=20 their literal sense (including those cited in 23 below), spoke of man's=20 deification (theosis in Greek). Arguing that if man is to share = in God's=20 glory and be "perfectly one" with Him, man must become deified. = That is,=20 he is to become by grace what God is by nature.

Although Orthodox Christians know that they do not = become God=20 or a part of Him (something that is not only blasphemous heresy, but=20 impossible), still, God calls people into intimate communion with Him = through=20 participation in the life of His grace, that they may become children of = God=20 not by nature and begetting (as with Christ, the Only-Begotten = Son of=20 God), but by grace and adoption. People are not called to = the=20 false glory which Satan once sought and was therefore cast down to hell, = but to=20 the true "power to become sons of God" (Jn 1:12), which raises them to=20 Heaven.

Regarding the literal interpretation noted = above, Elder=20 Cleopa of Romania explains that the mystery of Holy Scripture is = understood and=20 explained in three ways. He lists these ways as: 1) literal, according = to the=20 nominal, grammatical, verbal and historical meaning; 2) allegorical or=20 metaphorical, which is superior to the former; and 3) spiritual. The = elder adds=20 that "according to the Fathers, the simplest of senses to alight upon is = the=20 first meaning, according to the letter of Scripture, to penetrate with=20 discretion to the nature of Scripture requires modest learning, while to = explain=20 the depth of the meaning of Scripture is of the highest spiritual = advancement=20 and in need of the most divine grace" [The Truth of Our Faith, p. = 48].

23. Give two texts from the New Testament = which reveal=20 this doctrine.

Our Lord Jesus Christ, though He was rich, yet for = your sake=20 became poor, that you through His poverty might become rich (2 Cor = 8:9).

The glory which Thou, Father, gavest Me I have given = to them,=20 that they may be perfectly one (Jn 17:22-23).

Thus the Lord states that He has given a share of the = divine=20 glory to His Apostles, and He prays that they may be united to God.

Although not noted in the textbook, the italicized = words in the=20 following passage also convey the meaning of deification:

And He Himself gave some to be Apostles and some = pastors and=20 teachers, for the equipping of the saints for the work of the ministry, = for the=20 edifying of the Body of Christ, till we all come to the unity of faith = of the=20 knowledge of the Son of God, to a perfect man, to the measure of the = stature=20 of the fullness of Christ (Eph 4:11-13).

24. Though it is not mentioned in the = textbook, can you=20 explain how this doctrine is presented in the true Orthodox = icon?

Leonid Ouspensky deals with the phenomenon of theosis = in=20 iconography throughout his book Theology of the Icon. This author = states=20 that "the icon is intimately connected with the renewal, the deification = of=20 human nature realized in Christ." Further on he explains that "men who = have=20 known sanctification by experience have created images that correspond = to it."=20 He continues:

The icon is an image not only of a living but also a = deified=20 prototype. It does not represent the corruptible flesh, destined for=20 decomposition, but transfigured flesh, illumined by grace, the flesh of = the=20 world to come (cf. 1 Cor 15:35-46). It portrays the divine beauty and = glory in=20 material ways which are visible to human eyes. The icon is venerable and = holy=20 precisely because it portrays this deified state of its prototype and = bears his=20 name.

Regarding true icons (also called = Byzantine=20 icons), these are the traditional icons of intense spiritual beauty that = lead=20 the viewer from the world of matter to the holy prototypes and to God. = These=20 icons bear the impress of holiness as a high decree of sanctification is = demanded of the painter-monastics, who prepare for their task with = fasting and=20 ascetic endeavors. In the final analysis, iconography is the outcome of = a holy=20 life, and it is the fruit of a way of life. Other true icons having the = imprint=20 of holiness are those not-wrought-by-men's-hands that have appeared=20 miraculously.

True icons are not those of the worldly, innovative = and=20 ostentatious style patterned after Western paintings. The modernistic,=20 Western-style icons are not holy, and it is an infringement of Apostolic = Tradition to use them. This matter will be examined in further depth in = chapter=20 four.

25. If man is to share in God's glory, if he is to be = "perfectly one" with God, to what state would he have to attain?

Man would have to be deified. That is, he must become = by grace=20 what God is by nature.

26. In order to make theosis possible, what nature = would Christ=20 have to possess?

Christ must be =97 and is =97 both fully God = and fully man.=20 The textbook goes on to note that:

Each heresy in turn undermined some part of this = vital=20 affirmation. Either Christ was made less than God (Arianism); or His = manhood was=20 so divided from His Godhead that He became two persons instead of one=20 (Nestorianism); or He was not presented as truly man (Monophysitism,=20 Monothelitism).

In response to these four heresies that attacked = God's=20 revelation, the Ecumenical Councils defended the truth that Christ is = fully God=20 and fully man.

27. Why must Christ be truly, fully = God?

For theosis to be possible, Christ must be fully God = since no=20 one less than God can save man.

28. Why must Christ be truly, fully man?

Christ must also be fully man so that human beings = can=20 participate in what He has done for our race.

29. What bridge was formed between God and = man?

The Incarnate Christ, Who is both God and man, is the = bridge=20 between God and man.

30. In what Scripture is this bridge = or=20 ladder described?

The bridge or ladder is described in St. John's = Gospel.=20 "Hereafter you shall see Heaven open, and the angels of God ascending = and=20 descending upon the Son of Man" (Jn 1:51).

31. Who else besides angels use this = ladder?

The human race uses it.

32. Upon what aspect of the doctrine of = Christ's nature=20 did the first two Ecumenical Councils concentrate?

The first two Ecumenical Councils (fourth century) = concentrated=20 on Christ's Divinity and that He must be fully God, and they formulated = the=20 doctrine of the Holy Trinity.

33. How was this teaching of divine = bridge=20 building undermined by a) Arianism, and b) Monophysitism and=20 Monothelitism?

Once the Christian Church proved victorious over the=20 persecution coming from without, from the pagans, an even greater = danger=20 arose from within. That danger was in the form of attacks from = false=20 brothers in the Church =97 that is, from one heresy and schism after = another.=20 Among those heresies were Arianism, Monophysitism and Monothelitism.

Arianism undermined the idea of divine bridge = building in that=20 it falsely taught that the Son was inferior to the Father. It also = falsely=20 placed the Son among created things: a superior creature, it said, yet = still a=20 creature. The effect of this heresy was to render man's deification = impossible.=20 Condemning Arianism, the First Ecumenical Council (325) answered that = only if=20 Christ is truly God can He unite us to God, for the way to union with = God can be=20 opened by none but God Himself. The Council went on to affirm the truth = that=20 Christ is "of one essence" (homoousios) = with the=20 Father. He is not a demigod or a superior creature, but He is God = in the=20 same sense that the Father is God.

Monophysitism and Monothelitism undermined the idea = of divine=20 bridge building from the opposite approach: both struck at the fullness = of=20 Christ's humanity and held that He was not truly man. Monophysitism = maintained=20 that in Christ was a unity of personality, but only one nature. That is, = it=20 considered that Christ's human nature had been absorbed by His divine = nature.=20 The Fourth Ecumenical Council (451) replied with a proclamation of = belief in=20 "one and the same Son, perfect in Godhood and perfect in manhood, truly = God and=20 truly man... acknowledged in two natures unconfusedly, = unchangeably,=20 indivisibly, inseparably; the difference between the natures is in no = way=20 removed because of the union, but rather the peculiar property of each = nature is=20 preserved, and both combine in one Person and in one Hypostasis."

(Concerning the word hypostasis, Metropolitan = Hierotheos=20 of Nafpaktos explains that it is derived from the Greek verb meaning to = stand=20 underneath, and it implies stability, the foundation, basis, and so = forth. In=20 theological language, hypostasis means being or reality, = in=20 contrast to appearance. The metropolitan goes on to state that according = to St.=20 John of Damascus, hypostasis means two things: first, existence, and = secondly,=20 the particular existence of each person. That is to say, a man is a = hypostasis,=20 he has a real existence, but also each person has his particular = existence, the=20 peculiarly characteristic features which distinguish him from other = people,=20 other hypostases).

Monothelitism, a later form of Monophysitism, held = that=20 although Christ has two natures, He is still a single Person and thus = has only=20 one will =97 namely, the divine will. The Sixth Ecumenical Council (680) = condemned=20 this false teaching and replied that if Christ has two natures, then He = must=20 have two wills.

After the condemnation of Monothelitism by the Sixth = Council,=20 this heresy continued and centered at the Monastery of St. Maron in = Lebanon and=20 grew into the Maronite Church. It has about 500,000 adherents (1985)=20 worldwide.

Arius is called a fighter against God and a = ringleader of the=20 heresies. He was a second Judas, although he had a worse end than Judas, = who at=20 least died in a secluded place. As Arius was on his way to be reconciled = to the=20 Church, the bishop who had to receive him suspected that his repentance = was not=20 genuine, and he therefore placed the matter in God's hands. Then, while = Arius=20 was on his way to church, he stepped into a public latrine, and there he = died=20 when his bowels burst from his body.

Arianism was brought back to life in the modern = God-fighting=20 sect of the Jehovah's Witnesses, which also denies Christ's Divinity and = openly=20 and consciously attacks the Holy Trinity. It should come as no surprise = that the=20 Jehovah's Witnesses are given extensive financial support from the = enemies of=20 Christianity.

34. What article of the Creed was set forth by = the First=20 Ecumenical Council?

The First Ecumenical Council proclaimed in its Creed: = "I=20 believe in... one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the = Only-Begotten,=20 begotten of the Father before all ages; Light of Light, true God of true = God;=20 begotten, not made; of one essence with the Father." Behind = these=20 truths stands the one and only God, the Most Holy Trinity.

35. Outline the understanding which your = derived from=20 this section about the Ecumenical Councils.

The textbook notes that the Church's Councils had as = their=20 purpose the salvation of man and that the Council is the chief means = by which=20 God has chosen to guide His flock. Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky = adds=20 that:

The highest organ of authority in the Church, = and the=20 highest authority in general, is a council of bishops: for a = local Church=20 it is a council of its local bishops, and for the Ecumenical Church, a = council=20 of the bishops of the whole Church [Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, = p.=20 235].

As noted, an Ecumenical Council starts out as a = general council=20 of bishops from all districts who assemble in order to discuss and = decide=20 questions pressing to the entire Church. St. Nikodemos the Hagiorite = (+1809)=20 gives four distinguishing marks of an Ecumenical Council. The first is = that it=20 is convened "by order, not of the pope nor of such and such a patriarch, = but by=20 royal orders." The Ecumenical Councils were convened by the Roman = (Byzantine)=20 emperors when they wanted to make the definition of an Ecumenical = Council a law=20 of the empire for the peace of its citizens. The second is that there = should be=20 a discussion of topics of faith "and afterwards a decision and a = dogmatic=20 definition should be published in each one of the Patriarchates." The = third is=20 that "the dogmas must be correct in their Orthodoxy and in agreement = with the=20 Divine Scriptures, or the previous Ecumenical Councils." To be the voice = of the=20 Church, a council's decisions must be in harmony with the Scriptures and = the=20 preceding Ecumenical Councils, and conversely, a council cannot be = ecumenical if=20 its decisions are in disharmony with the Scriptures or the previous = Ecumenical=20 Councils. If the decisions meet these standards, they are valid. As St. = Maximus=20 the Confessor states: "The right faith validates the meetings that have = taken=20 place, and again, the correctness of dogmas justifies the meetings." The = fourth=20 is that it must have universal recognition. All the Orthodox patriarchs = and=20 archbishops must "agree and accept the decisions and canonizings by the=20 Ecumenical Councils, either through their personal presence or through = their=20 delegates, and in their absence, through their letters." [Quoted in = Metropolitan=20 Hierotheos of Nafpaktos, The Mind of the Orthodox Church, pp.=20 215-16].

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky additionally notes = that:

The Orthodox Church of Christ is the Body of Christ, = a=20 spiritual organism whose Head is Christ. It has a single spirit, = a single=20 common faith, a single and common catholic consciousness guided = by the=20 Holy Spirit; and its reasonings are based on the concrete, definite = foundations=20 of Sacred Scripture and Sacred Apostolic Tradition. This catholic = consciousness=20 is always with the Church, but, in a more definite fashion, this = consciousness=20 is expressed in the Ecumenical Councils of the Church [Op. cit., p. = 35].

Concerning what the Ecumenical Councils accomplished, = Fr.=20 Michael explains that they formulated precisely and confirmed a number = of=20 fundamental truths of the Orthodox Christian faith. Secondly, they = defended the=20 ancient teaching of the Church against the distortions of heretics. = Thirdly,=20 they formulated numerous laws and rules, or canons, for governing = public=20 and private Christian life, and they required universal and uniform = observance=20 of these canons. Lastly, the Ecumenical Councils confirmed the dogmatic = decrees=20 of a number of local councils, and also the dogmatic statements composed = by=20 certain Fathers of the Church.

Fr. Michael gives more details, stating that when it = happened=20 that councils of bishops permitted heretical views to be expressed in = their=20 decrees, the catholic consciousness of the Church was disturbed and was = not=20 pacified until authentic Christian truth was restored and confirmed by = means of=20 another council. It is explained that:

True Councils =97 those which express Orthodox truth = =97 are=20 accepted by the Church's catholic consciousness; false councils =97 = those which=20 teach heresy or reject some aspect of the Church's Tradition =97 are = rejected by=20 the same catholic consciousness. The Orthodox Church is the Church not = of=20 councils as such, but only of true councils, inspired by = the Holy=20 Spirit, which conform to the Church's catholic consciousness [Ibid., p. = 36].

The textbook for this course notes that the decisions = of a=20 general council are overturned if the Church rejects them as heretical. = Three=20 instances of such a rejection are given: Ephesus (449), the Iconoclast = Council=20 of Hieria (754), and Florence (1438-39).

Fr. Michael explains that the Ecumenical Councils of = the Church=20 made their dogmatic decrees a) after a careful, thorough and complete=20 examination of all those places in Sacred Scripture which touch a given=20 question, and b) thus testifying that the Ecumenical Church has = understood the=20 cited passages of Sacred Scripture in precisely this way. In this way, = the=20 decrees of the Ecumenical Councils concerning the faith express

... the harmony of Sacred Scripture and the = catholic=20 Tradition of the Church. For this reason these decrees became = themselves, in=20 their turn, an authentic, inviolable, authoritative, Ecumenical and = Sacred=20 Tradition in the Church, founded upon the facts of Sacred Scripture and=20 Apostolic Tradition [Ibid].

Concerning the Church's Creed, Fr. Michael makes the = following=20 notation:

Among all the dogmatic decrees of the Councils, the = Ecumenical=20 Councils themselves acknowledge as primary and fundamental the=20 Nicaeo-Constantinopolitan Symbol of Faith, and they forbade any changes=20 whatsoever in it, not only in its ideas, but also in its words, either = by=20 addition or subtraction (decrees of the Third Ecumenical Council, = repeated by=20 the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Councils) [Ibid., p. 37].

The first part of the Creed was written at the First = Ecumenical=20 Council, and it emphasized the monotheistic centrality of faith. The = second half=20 of the Creed, written at the Second Ecumenical Council, emphasized the=20 respective roles of each of the Persons of the Holy Trinity. The = doctrinal truth=20 proclaiming the dyophysite nature of the Son, His two (dyo, = duo)=20 simultaneous natures, was the work of St. Cyril of Alexandria (+444). = Whoever=20 does not accept the truths of the Creed is not an Orthodox = Christian.

It should also be noted that the Orthodox Church = to this day=20 retains the original text of the Creed. The Roman Catholic Church, = on the=20 other hand, uses an altered text, thus coming under the = condemnation=20 of five Ecumenical Councils that the Latin Church itself recognizes = as=20 divinely inspired.

The doctrinal definitions handed down by the = Ecumenical=20 Councils are infallible, and along with the Bible, they have a permanent = and=20 irrevocable authority. The Ecumenical Councils cannot be revised or = corrected,=20 but must be accepted in their entirety. Archpriest Seraphim Slobodskoy = writes in=20 this regard that:

The decision of an Ecumenical Council is the highest = earthly=20 authority of the Holy Church of Christ, guided by the Holy Spirit, as it = was=20 stated in the decision of the first Apostolic Council, "For it seemed = good to=20 the Holy Spirit and to us..." (Acts 15:28) [The Law of God, = p.=20 425].

36. What do you feel was the most important = point in=20 this section of the textbook?

The most significant point is that dealing with God's = plan for=20 the salvation of mankind. God the Son took the initiative in breaking = down the=20 wall of separation that man's sinfulness had created between God and = man. To=20 this end, He became man, was crucified, and rose again from the dead, = thereby=20 delivering humanity from the bondage to sin and death. Christ, Who is = both fully=20 God and fully man, became a bridge between God and man, and He invites = people to=20 partake of His divine life and be redeemed.

Another extremely significant aspect of this section = is that=20 dealing with the Ecumenical Councils. These Councils are but one more = sign of=20 God's concern for mankind and Christ's continued fidelity to His Church. = Christ=20 did not leave His followers orphans but sent the Holy Spirit to guide = the Church=20 in truth and to protect it against error and heresy so that man can = attain full=20 salvation.

Lastly, some very important observations that tie in = with this=20 period of Church history are given by Dr. Ivan Andreyev. The professor = writes=20 that:

The appearance of Christ on earth and the spreading = of=20 historical Christianity roused against itself the mobilization of all = the forces=20 of hades. In answer to this, Christianity presented to the world its=20 self-defense. It answered persecutions with professions of faith and = martyrdom;=20 heresies, schisms and false doctrines with the Ecumenical Councils, the=20 doctrines of the Holy Fathers and dogmas; the continual torrent of = nagging=20 criticism with impartial apologetics; slander with holiness; and the = efforts of=20 all the powers of hades with the Holy Church [Orthodox Apologetic=20 Theology, p. 164].

 

 

3. Byzantium and the Church of = the Seven=20 Councils (Continuation).

1. What aspect of the Nicene Creed was = developed at the=20 Second Ecumenical Council?

The Second Ecumenical Council developed the teaching = of the=20 Holy Spirit and affirmed that the Holy Spirit is God, even as the = Father and=20 Son are God. This Council also adopted the Nicene Creed, which = states that=20 the Holy Spirit "proceeds from the Father, Who with the Father and = Son=20 together is worshiped and glorified." As Archpriest Vladimir = Glindsky=20 explains, the personal attribute of the Holy Spirit is such that He = proceeds=20 eternally from the Father, just as the attribute of the Son is to be = born=20 eternally of the Father.

That the Holy Spirit is one in essence with the other = Persons=20 of the Holy Trinity is shown in Scriptures: "Go therefore, and teach all = nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and = of the=20 Holy Spirit" (Mt 28:19).

The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of = God, and=20 the communion of the Holy Spirit, be with you all (2 Cor 13:13).

And who shall know Thy thought, except Thou give = wisdom, and=20 send Thy Holy Spirit from above (Wisdom of Solomon 9:17).

The same Fr. Vladimir also explains that:

The Orthodox teaching on the Holy Spirit is inspired = by Holy=20 Scripture. It asserts that the Holy Spirit is the Third Living Person of = the=20 Triune God, distinct from the Father and the Son, but is not an = anonymous force=20 of God, nor simply a force created by God. Especially contradictory to = God's=20 Word is the reasoning that the Holy Spirit is simply a grace-filled = inspiration=20 in the believer ["Fundamentals of the Orthodox Christian Faith," = Orthodox=20 Life, vol. 51, no. 4, 2001, p. 24].

2. The author of the textbook, as with most = Western=20 writers, confuses St. Gregory the Theologian with his father, St. = Gregory=20 Nazianzus. Noting that this error has been made, name the four Holy = Fathers who=20 were the most responsible for the definitive work of the Second = Ecumenical=20 Council.

These Fathers were Saints Athanasius of Alexandria = (+373),=20 Gregory the Theologian (+390), Basil the Great (+379) and Gregory of = Nyssa=20 (+395).

3. What is the key word in the Nicene Creed = and what=20 does it mean?

The key word is homoousios, which means = one in=20 essence or substance, consubstantial. St. Athanasius of Alexandria = worked=20 out the full implications of this concept which explains the Son's = relation to=20 the Father. Christ is not some kind of superior creature, but He is God = in the=20 very sense that the Father is, and He is equal in power to, and in = undivided=20 glory with, the Father. Christ is "true God of true God, = begotten not=20 made, one in essence with the Father," the Church's Creed = proclaims.

4. The Cappadocian Fathers gave full meaning = to=20 what?

The textbook states that the Cappadocian Fathers = preserved a=20 delicate balance between the threeness and oneness of God and that they = gave a=20 full meaning to the classic summary of Trinitarian doctrine, three = Persons in=20 one essence. Concerning this analysis, Hieromonk Patapios of Etna states = that=20 the textbook presents a typically Western assessment of St. Athanasius = the Great=20 and the Cappadocians, according to which the former emphasized the = "unity of=20 God" and the latter "God's threeness." Fr. Patapios explains that:

Such a contrast is not inherently mistaken, as long = as it is=20 not pressed so far as to imply that St. Athanasius did not appreciate = the=20 "threeness" of God or that the Cappadocians did not make due allowance = for His=20 "oneness." This difference of emphasis has more to do with the different = heresies that both were combating, than it does with any lopsidedness in = their=20 respective theologies. One should be extremely cautious about posing = contrasts=20 of this kind, which all too easily contribute to the misconception that = the=20 Fathers were somehow at odds with each other, rather than members = of a=20 harmonious chorus [The Orthodox Church and The Orthodox Way = Reviewed, pp.=20 5-6].

5. What position did the pope of Rome formerly = hold in=20 the Church?

First, it is to be noted that the textbook for this = course is=20 somewhat of a mixed bag. While it may be the best introduction to = Orthodoxy=20 currently available in English, it is written by an author whose = background is=20 Anglican rather than Orthodox, and as a result, many serious theological = errors=20 find their way into the book. Among these errors is the author's = completely=20 un-Orthodox view of the papacy and his appalling and clearly = misleading=20 statement that the "Orthodox believe that among the five patriarchs, a = special=20 place belongs to the pope." Commenting on this completely false = assertion, Fr.=20 Patapios asks:

Do we believe this now? Except for some fanatical = ecumenists,=20 most certainly not. What [the author] should have said is that in = the=20 first millennium, the East was prepared to accord some kind of supremacy = of=20 honor, as he himself concedes later in the same paragraph, to the = patriarch of Rome =97 though not exclusively so, given the position of = honor also=20 accorded to Constantinople and the Mother Church of Jerusalem. Whatever = this=20 primacy may have been in the minds of the ancient bishops, it is now a = dead=20 letter; so, indeed, is Rome's very claim to Apostolic Succession. [The = textbook]=20 also suggests that we, as Orthodox, grant that "the holy and Apostolic = see of=20 Rome... [has]... the right (under certain conditions) to hear appeals = from all=20 parts of Christendom." When it was still Orthodox in its confession of = the=20 faith, the Roman papacy may have played some such role. However, = since it=20 lapsed into heresy, this limited spiritual prerogative =97 = whatever it may=20 have been =97 has become utterly null and void [Ibid., pp. = 6-7].

Orthodoxy has always believed in the equality = of all=20 bishops as regards grace and divine right, no matter how = humble or=20 exalted the city over which he presides. Orthodoxy distinguishes between = bishops=20 only as regards honor. Although all bishops (including = patriarchs) are=20 equal in the Orthodox Church, they do have different administrative = duties and=20 honors that accrue to their rank.

Prior to 1054, when Latin Christianity was still in = communion=20 with Eastern Christianity, the bishop of Rome, or pope (meaning = father),=20 was regarded as primus inter pares (the first among equals) among = the=20 other bishops. The First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 325 accorded = the bishop=20 of Rome this distinction not because Rome had been the seat of = the=20 Apostle Peter, but "on account of her being the imperial city" [Canon = 28]. If=20 the position of honor accorded to the pope was determined not by the=20 political but by the religious significance of the city, = the=20 primacy of honor would be reserved for Jerusalem, the Mother = Church of=20 Christendom. There would be no dispute in this matter, for Christ lived = in=20 Jerusalem, was crucified there and arose from the dead there. Thus, the = first=20 among equals position was not a supremacy, but was instead a=20 preeminence of honor. This primacy of honor was largely of = symbolic=20 value. It meant that in ecumenical gatherings, the bishop of Rome could, = if he=20 wished, preside over the meetings and hold center place, inasmuch as the = highest=20 ranking bishop would preside in Councils but would not impose authority. = However, some books hod that no pope was ever present at an Ecumenical = Council,=20 and no pope ever presided over one of them. Moreover, the Ecumenical = Councils=20 themselves never imagined that the legitimacy of their decisions was to = be=20 determined by papal review and approval. There is simply no = historical=20 data to support such a view.

Of further note, the prerogative of being first among = equals=20 was also given to the bishop of Constantinople when that city became the = capital=20 of the Roman Empire. This honor was bestowed by Canon 28 of the Fourth=20 Ecumenical Council held at Chalcedon. Moreover, as the writer Michael = Whelton=20 explains, in no place is any hint ever given in any canon or by any of = the=20 Fathers that the bishop of Rome has ever been the prince of the = Universal=20 Church, or an infallible judge of other bishops of the other independent = and=20 self-governing Churches, or the successor of the Apostle Peter and the = vicar of=20 Christ on earth. The same former Roman Catholic notes that the Church of = the=20 Seven Ecumenical Councils called for an equilibrium found in Canon 34 of = the=20 Apostolic Canons. These canons date from the first half of the fourth = century=20 and mirror the practices of the Pre-Nicaean Church. These canons were = translated=20 into Latin by Dionysius Exiguus in the late fifth century and were = widely=20 accepted in the West. In them, the 34th Canon states that "... neither = let him=20 who is the first do anything without the consent of all." Thus, it = was=20 entirely clear that no bishop could claim universal jurisdiction since = he could=20 do nothing without the consent of all.

Also of note, every self-governing Church, both in = the East and=20 West, was completely independent and self-administered in the time of = the Seven=20 Ecumenical Councils. Just as in the East, the bishops of Africa, Spain, = Gaul,=20 Britain and elsewhere managed the affairs of their own Churches through = their=20 local councils. The bishop of Rome had no right to interfere with = these=20 Churches, and he also was equally subject and obedient to the decrees of = the=20 councils. Also, on important questions that required the sanction of = the=20 Universal Church, an appeal was made not to the bishop of Rome, but to = an=20 Ecumenical Council, which alone was (and is) the supreme tribunal in = the=20 Universal Church. Such was the ancient constitution of the Church. = The=20 bishops were independent of one another, they obeyed only the decrees of = the=20 councils, and they sat as equal to one another in the councils. Also, = none of=20 the bishops laid claim to monarchical rights over the Universal Church. = On those=20 occasions when certain ambitions bishops of Rome raised excessive claims = to an=20 absolutism not recognized in the Church, they were duly reproved and=20 rebuked.

In short, the bishop of Rome was never accorded = any rights=20 or powers over the entire Church. As patriarch of the West, he had no = more=20 authority than that granted to any of the patriarchs in the = East.

The Roman Catholic history of the Church is utterly=20 artificial, ignoring as it does more than half of the Christian = world,=20 the Christian East, from which Western Christianity ultimately derives. = Contrary=20 to the Latin Church's assertion, the spiritual center of Christianity = was not=20 Rome. In the earliest extant copies of the Liturgy, it is written that: = "We make=20 offering for Zion [Jerusalem], the mother of all Churches." Likewise, = the Second=20 Ecumenical Council proclaims that "Jerusalem is the mother of all = Churches." As=20 for Rome's argument that the Christian Church in Rome held an actual = primacy in=20 the Church, rather than a primacy of honor, such a notion would have = struck the=20 primitive Church as absurd.

Furthermore, to trace that primacy to the Apostle = Peter would=20 not have seemed sensible to the early Church. Had any kind of personal = primacy =97=20 aside from that of Christ =97 existed in the Church, it would have = belonged to=20 St. James, the bishop of Jerusalem.

Roman Catholics and Orthodox both believe that St. = James was=20 the first bishop of Jerusalem, but only Rome teaches that St. Peter = presided=20 over the Council of Jerusalem as a pope. However, the facts of Scripture = (Acts=20 15) clearly refute this idea. Although Peter spoke at the = Council,=20 James disagreed with Peter, and it was James who summed up = the=20 decisions and decided the issue of the catholicity of the Christian = message.=20 James was the center of the Apostolic Council and was its voice, = and it=20 was to James' voice that Peter submitted. There is no = indication=20 in Acts 15 that Peter in any way presided over the Council. If Roman = Catholics=20 would read the book of Acts, they would see for themselves that the = Council=20 of Jerusalem was not presided over by St. Peter.

In addition, the Apostle Peter himself never = asserted any=20 sort of supremacy over the other Apostles. While Peter was the first = to=20 receive the power to bind and to loose, this power was subsequently = given to all=20 the Apostles (vide Mt 16:16-19 and Mt 18:18).

Had any bishops dared to arrogate to themselves a = supremacy of=20 power over the other bishops, the bishops of Antioch would have had = all the=20 more reasonable claim than Rome of being the see of Peter inasmuch = as the=20 Apostle Peter founded the Church of Antioch and was its first = bishop=20 before he ever went to Rome. Moreover, in addition to Antioch, a = sizeable number=20 of Churches trace their foundation to the Apostle Peter: Alexandria, = Caesarea in=20 Palestine, Tripoli and Corinth. If one were to suppose that the Roman = Catholics=20 had correctly interpreted Mt 16:18-19, and that primacy had actually = been given=20 to Peter and his supposed successors, the bishops of Rome, = then=20 Rome's primacy does not follow from it since the bishops from = all the=20 above Churches founded by Peter would have to lay claim for primacy for=20 themselves, as successors of the "chief" Apostle. In such a case, = the dogma=20 of primacy would be reduced to absurdity. As it was, however, = these other=20 Churches founded by Peter did not fall into Rome's deception, for = the=20 teaching of primacy was unknown to the Church.

In the sixth century, Pope Gregory I the Great = (+604),=20 misunderstanding the authority assumed by the bishop of New Rome=20 (Constantinople), wrote some terse words to the latter, warning that he = should=20 not misinterpret or overstate the primacy of honor due to him as bishop = of New=20 Rome. Pope Gregory clearly points out that actual authority in the = Church is=20 shared by all the bishops equally [Papal Letters, Book 5, = Letter 20].=20 This same pope pronounced any "universal bishop" to be = "the=20 forerunner of the antichrist."

Pope Gregory's letter stands as the clearest = possible=20 witness against a primacy in the Roman pontiff, = and it=20 clearly shows that the idea of papal supremacy represents a deviation = on=20 Rome's part from the correct understanding of the authority of = bishops =97=20 an understanding that Rome itself had earlier adhered = to. St.=20 Gregory's opposition to papal authority is well documented, and his = letters are=20 available to anyone who wishes to read them. In these letters, there is = striking=20 evidence that even in Rome, the right to claim a primacy over the = Church was=20 not recognized.

St. Gregory's correct understanding is from a = bishop of=20 Rome, no less, and one regarded by the Roman Catholic Church as a = very=20 eminent pope and a great saint. Needless to say, the Latin = Church=20 makes certain to conceal Pope Gregory's letter from its flock.

Another guarded secret of the Latin Church is that = early popes=20 condemned the title Supreme Bishop of the Universal Church as=20 blasphemous, as a "snare of Satan," and as an "imitation of = the=20 devil." However, this very title is now the chief title of the = Roman=20 Catholic popes.

The falsehood of supremacy of external power and = jurisdiction=20 was unheard-of in the undivided Christian Church until Rome began to = assert it=20 beginning in the ninth century. It was the Carolingians that initiated = papal=20 claims to tremendous worldly power at that time, although the papacy = itself=20 never dogmatized these claims in the form of papal infallibility until = the year=20 1870. (As noted in the introduction, for almost nineteen centuries, = papal=20 infallibility was denied by popes and faithful laymen). = Concerning=20 these false claims, St. John of Kronstadt stated that:

The cause of all the errors of the Roman Catholic = Church is=20 pride, and belief that the pope is the real head of the Church, and what = is=20 more, that he is infallible.

The Protestant Reformer John Wycliffe noted the = same:

The pride of the pope is why the Greeks are divided = from the=20 so-called faithful. It is we Westerners, who are too fanatical by far, = who have=20 been divided from the faithful Greeks and the faith of our Lord = Jesus.

Writing of the Latin Church's departure from the = ancient=20 Apostolic Church of Christ, one writer explains that:

When Cardinal Humbert walked out of Saint Sophia [in=20 Constantinople] in 1054, having put the pope's bull of excommunication = on the=20 altar, he left as an ordinary layman, since he (and his superior in = Rome, and=20 all who remained in communion with him) ceased being in open, formal = communion=20 with the rest of the Christian Church which continued holding Apostolic = doctrine=20 and polity. All who joined themselves with that group of men who left=20 voluntarily the unity of the continuing Church have remained apostates = and=20 schismatics ever since, no matter how vast, wealthy and vociferous they = may be=20 in claiming otherwise.

Whoever either voluntarily sets himself apart from = the=20 continuing unity of the undivided Church founded by Christ, or who = alters the=20 teachings defined by that Church, ceases to be a member of it. = Orthodoxy=20 alone has remained unchanged through the centuries, both in her doctrine = and in=20 her organization; all other groups, however huge or widespread, and = however they=20 may choose to style themselves, are not Orthodox, not in membership with = that=20 One Church founded by Christ [Abbot Augustine Whitfield, "Valid Orders," = Orthodox America, March 1989, p. 16; emphasis added].

Commenting further on Rome's fall and its pope (whom = he calls=20 the man-god and idol of Western humanism), St. Justin (Popovich) of = Chelije=20 states that:

In the history of mankind there are three falls, the = fall of=20 Adam, of Judas Iscariot, and that of the pope. The essence of falling = into sin=20 is always the same: the desire to become God by oneself. In this manner, = a man=20 insensibly equates himself with the devil, because he also wants to = become God=20 by himself to replace God with himself.... The fall of the pope lies = exactly in=20 this very thing: to want to replace the God-Man [Christ] with the = man.

As of Rome's infinitely tragic departure from = Christ's Church=20 in 1054, the unity of the Church did not cease at that time, nor did = Orthodoxy=20 and Rome become separate branches of the Church. The Church, being one,=20 continued in ancient Orthodoxy. As Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky=20 explains:

The Church does not lose its unity because side by = side with=20 the Church there exist Christian societies which do not belong to it. = These=20 societies are not in the Church, they are outside it [Orthodox = Dogmatic=20 Theology, p. 235].

Abbot Augustine explains that once the Latin Church = severed=20 itself from the Eastern Church, the post-schism popes invented new and=20 unscriptural ecclesiologies that sought to justify their separation. = These=20 ecclesiologies claimed that Rome's bishops somehow "kept their orders" = and=20 "could perform valid Sacraments." Deviating from what the Church has = always=20 held, the Latin Church came to maintain that sacramental authority = resides in=20 the person of the clergyman because of his ordination. Thus, if = that=20 individual secedes from the Church, he can continue to liturgise and = ordain=20 others (although he will sin in doing so), and his Sacraments will be = valid but=20 irregular.

Rome's newly invented false teaching in this regard = became the=20 rationale for thousands of independent bodies that claim to have=20 Apostolic Succession and Sacraments, but which have lost what is = essential to=20 them both =97 the characteristic of Church unity as understood by = the Holy=20 Fathers. The Fathers teach that the grace of the Mysteries (Sacraments), = given=20 by God, resides in the Church. This grace is poured out upon = Christians=20 through the clergy ordained for this purpose. This mysterious power does = not=20 reside in the individual men who celebrate the Mysteries, but it belongs = in=20 the body of the Church, from whom the bishops and clergy receive = their=20 authority. If any clergyman separates himself from the Church, either = because of=20 teaching falsely (heresy), or by seceding from the unity of the Church = (schism),=20 any "Mysteries" he performs are totally invalid and void, as "he = has=20 become a layman" (St. Basil). Thus, after the Latin Church left Christ's = Church=20 in the Great Schism, it had neither bishops, nor orders, nor Sacraments, = nor the=20 grace of the Holy Spirit.

As a result of being cut off from the Holy Spirit, = Rome was no=20 longer in a position to withstand false teachings that arose, and these = in turn=20 became dogmatized (a matter that will be explored in chapter six). One = such=20 false dogma, that of papal infallibility, is explained by Protopriest = Victor=20 Potapov. He writes that:

The teaching on the infallibility of the pope, which = was=20 completely unknown to the ancient, undivided Church, appeared in = the=20 Middle Ages, just like the teaching on the supremacy of the pope; but = for a long=20 time it met opposition on the part of the more enlightened, honest and=20 independent members of the Catholic Church. Only in the year 1870, at = the First=20 Vatican Council, did Pope Pius IX succeed in turning this teaching into = a dogma,=20 in spite of the protest of many Catholics, who even preferred to leave = this=20 Church and found their own community [of the Old Catholics] rather than = to=20 accept so absurd a dogma. By virtue of the definition of the Vatican = Council,=20 the pope is infallible when he, as the pastor and teacher of all = Christians,=20 defines or proclaims the truths of the faith ex cathedra, that = is,=20 officially, as the head of the Church. The nebulous expression ex=20 cathedra is not understood in the same way by all Catholic = theologians; but,=20 no matter how one understands it, the Catholic dogma contradicts the = whole=20 spirit of Christ's teaching, which rejects the possibility for an = individual=20 man to be infallible, no matter what position he might occupy.

The dogma of the infallibility of the pope = contradicts=20 the whole history of the Church and of the papacy itself. History = provides a=20 whole series of indisputable facts concerning the errors of popes = in=20 questions of dogma and the contradictions of popes among = themselves in=20 matters of faith. For example, Pope Sixtus V, in concert with the = bishops,=20 issued a Latin translation of the Bible corrected by him and, under = threat of=20 anathema, required it to be accepted as the most authentic. There proved = to be=20 major mistakes in this translation, and subsequent popes withdrew it = from church=20 use. Which of the popes was infallible, Sixtus or his successor? = Pope Leo=20 III not only refused to insert the filioque, the addition "and = from the=20 Son," into the Symbol of Faith, but even commanded that the intact = Symbol be=20 engraved on tablets and set up in the Church. Within two hundred years, = Pope=20 Benedict VIII inserted this addition into the Symbol of Faith. Which = of them=20 was infallible? Out of the numerous instances of the errors in = dogma of=20 the Roman bishops, it is sufficient to mention Pope Honorius = (625-38), who=20 fell into the Monothelite heresy and was excommunicated from the Church = by the=20 Sixth Ecumenical Council. At this Council, the delegates of the Roman = bishop,=20 Agatho, also were present and signed its decisions [Orthodoxy and=20 Heterodoxy; emphasis added].

It may come as a surprise to some Catholics that = before Rome's=20 definition of papal infallibility as dogma in 1870, the most illustrious = and=20 best-educated bishops of the Latin Church, and many of its most = respected=20 historians, roundly denounced the teaching as untenable. When Pius IX = sought the=20 mantle of papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council, one of the = Catholic=20 bishops, Bishop Strossmayer, rose and addressed the council with these=20 words:

I do not find one single chapter, or one little verse = [of=20 Scripture], in which Jesus Christ gives to St. Peter the mastery over = the=20 Apostles, his fellow-workers.... The Apostle Peter makes no mention of = the=20 primacy of Peter in any of his letters directed to the various = Churches.... What=20 has surprised me the most, and what moreover is capable of = demonstration, is=20 the silence of St. Peter himself!

Amidst jeers, Bishop Strossmayer continued:

The Councils of the first four centuries, while they = recognized=20 the high position which the bishop of Rome occupied in the Church on = account of=20 Rome, only accorded to him a preeminence of honor, never of power and = jurisdiction. In the passage thou art Peter, and on this rock I = will=20 build My Church, the Holy Fathers never understood that the Church = was built=20 on Peter (super Petrum), but on the rock (super petram) of = the=20 Apostle's confession of faith (in the Divinity of Christ) [Quoted in = Archpriest=20 Alexey Young, Christianity or the Papacy?, pp. 8-9; emphasis = added].

Bishop Strossmayer's words here are identical to the=20 pre-schism teaching of the Church of Christ, both East and West. = While=20 the Roman Catholic Church eventually departed from that ancient=20 understanding, Eastern Orthodoxy did not.

Regarding the loss of grace of the Holy Spirit from = the Latin=20 Church after its apostasy and schism, the following papal pronouncements = =97 all=20 diabolical in nature =97 clearly demonstrate what kind of spirit = possessed=20 the post-schism popes who uttered them:

The entire world knows how profitable this fable of = Christ has=20 been to us and ours. =97Pope Leo X (1513-1521).

We hold upon this earth the place of God Almighty. = =97 Pope Leo=20 XIII, from his 1894 encyclical.

The pope is not only representative of Jesus Christ, = but he is=20 Jesus Christ Himself, hidden under the veil of flesh. Does the pope = speak? It is=20 Jesus Christ Himself who speaks. =97 Pope Pius X.

You know that I am the Holy Father, the = representative of God=20 on earth, the Vicar of Christ, which means that I am God on earth =97 = Pope Pius=20 XI.

Adding to these deranged blasphemies, two Roman = Catholic=20 theologians have declared that:

The pope can do all things God can do. =97 Nicholas = de Tudeschis,=20 in Commentaria (lvi, 34).

To make war against the pope is to make war against = God, seeing=20 that the pope is God and God is the pope. =97 Moreri.

Until the ritual was terminated by Pope John Paul I, = when the=20 triple crown was placed on the head of a new pope at his coronation, the = officiating cardinal proclaimed:

Receive the tiara adorned with three crowns, and know = that thou=20 art the Father of Princes and Kings, Ruler of the World: the = Vicar of our=20 Saviour Jesus Christ... (Even though the ritual was changed, these words = still=20 remain).

The popes' love of power exceeded every limit, = something shown=20 in the proclamations of power claimed for themselves by these one-man=20 "infallible" dictators over the Church and would-be tyrants of = the=20 world. Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303), for example, proudly = insisted, "I=20 am Caesar, I am emperor." Prior to Vatican I devotion, the Roman = Breviary=20 ascribed various titles to the popes, and these included: King of = Kings=20 and Supreme Ruler of the World. Other appellations include = Vice-God of=20 Humanity, Exalted King of the Universe, and Imperator Totius = Mundi=20 (Emperor of the Entire World). (Although this last title is = no longer=20 used, the pope remains a king, with a prime minister, ministers and = ambassadors=20 [nuncios]. Likewise, the papacy remains a worldwide center of power, = which it=20 employs only in the service of its own interests, like any other = political or=20 temporal power).

If more examples of this mindlessness are needed, the = Vatican=20 newspaper La Civilt=E1 Cattolica (a Jesuit intellectual journal, = every=20 issue of which has to be cleared by the Vatican Secretary of State = before=20 publication) recorded that the pope is the "mind of God" and stated that = "when=20 the pope meditates, it is God Who thinks in him." Likewise, the = celebrated=20 New York Catechism clearly states that:

The pope takes the place of Jesus Christ on earth... = the=20 Arbiter of the World, the Supreme Judge of Heaven and = Earth, the=20 Judge of All, being judged by no one, God Himself on Earth = [Exact=20 words].

The Eastern Orthodox Church does not afford the Roman = Catholic=20 popes any primacy, for Orthodoxy has never numbered heretical bishops = with=20 Orthodox bishops. Orthodoxy does not even regard the pope as the bishop = of Rome=20 inasmuch as Rome no longer had true bishops as of 1054, when Apostolic=20 Succession was severed in the West.

6. Where and in what year was the Third = Ecumenical=20 Council held?

The Third Ecumenical Council was held at Ephesus in = 431.

7. What doctrinal issues necessitated the = Third=20 Council?

Christological issues =97 that is, disputes = concerning the nature=20 of Christ, brought about the Third Council. The Council was convened = against one=20 of the principal heresies in the Church, Nestorianism. This false = teaching=20 denied that there are two distinct natures, divine and human, united in = the=20 Person of Christ (hypostatic union). This teaching was condemned at the=20 Council.

8. Who was the formulator of the heresy which=20 necessitated the Third Council?

Nestorius (d. c. 451), who had been archbishop of=20 Constantinople, formulated the heresy of Nestorianism. However, he had = two=20 predecessors in this false teaching =97 Diodorus and Theodore of = Mopsuestia, whose=20 follower he was.

9. The Christological emphasis of the various = theological=20 centers differed, but the difference was only a particular emphasis. = Nestorius was educated at one center, but his theological directions = were=20 corrupted by his acceptance of certain concepts put forth by false = teachers. He=20 then fell into heresy by failing to follow the principle basic in the = Holy=20 Church, viz., he did not verify his teaching with the entire Orthodox = Church,=20 but rather proceeded on self-will. In what theological center did = Nestorius receive his education?

Nestorius was educated in the Antiochene theological=20 center.

10. While none of the theological centers of = the time=20 taught wrongly, which one of them was in the best position to present = the=20 correct, Orthodox teaching concerning the nature of Christ?

During the great doctrinal disputes of the first = eight=20 centuries of the Church's history, the see of Rome, that = once-great=20 bastion of Orthodoxy in the West, was generally noted for the = soundness of=20 its teaching and its firmness of faith. Although there were occasions = when the=20 Roman popes fell into heresy, the Patriarchate of Rome usually stood as = a=20 bulwark of the Christian faith in its struggle against heresy. For this = reason,=20 Rome was an honored center of Christian Tradition at that = time.

Protopriest Victor Potapov notes that regarding the=20 peculiarities of the spirit of the Roman people, which defined the = character of=20 the direction of the ecclesiastical life in the West after the = acceptance of=20 Christianity, one may speak of these as tendencies, as moods, as a = psychological=20 cast. Fr. Victor continues, stating that in the first eight centuries of = the=20 existence of the Universal Church, the psychological cast between the = Churches=20 of the East and West were as a whole beneficial rather than harmful to = the=20 Church, for they promoted the fullness of the elucidation and = incarnation in=20 life of the principles of Christianity, leaving the Church as one. It = was=20 required only that they abide in mutual ecclesiastical communion between = themselves and that they not depart from the one Universal Church. = However, the=20 Western Church broke this communion, and in this rift is contained the = cause of=20 its entry onto the path of heresy and its severance from Christ's Church = in=20 1054.

11. In what way did Nestorius precipitate the=20 controversy which led to the Third Ecumenical Council?

Nestorius declined to call the Virgin Mary = Theotokos=20 (Greek for Birthgiver of God or God-Bearer). To him, this popular title = seemed=20 to imply a confusion of the manhood and Godhood of Christ. He argued = that Mary=20 can only be called the Mother of Man (Anthropotokos), or at most the = Mother of=20 Christ (Christotokos), since she is the mother of Christ's humanity but = not His=20 Divinity. History shows that for this blasphemy, worms devoured the = tongue of=20 this God-fighting heresiarch while he was still alive.

Modern fellow-travelers with Nestorius include some=20 Protestants, who deny that God could have a mother, and who can only = bring=20 themselves to acknowledge that Mary was the mother of Christ's human = nature.=20 Michael Whelton points out that Protestant reaction to the title of = Theotokos=20 runs from a self-conscious uneasy acceptance to outright denial. He adds = that=20 the respective responses clearly demonstrate a graded scale within the=20 Protestant community, from superficial to outright Nestorianism. = However, the=20 denial of the title Theotokos centers not on Mary, he explains, but on = Christ=20 Himself and the Incarnation. He further explains that when most of these = people=20 think it through, they readily understand that Christ's human and divine = nature=20 cannot be separated.

12. The name of Theotokos is given to the = Virgin Mary in=20 order to safeguard the understanding of what?

This ancient title by which the Church addresses Mary = protects=20 and safeguards the doctrine of the Incarnation =97 that is, the = understanding that=20 Mary bore not a man loosely united to God, but a single and undivided = Person Who=20 is at the same time fully God and fully man.

13. In what way does the denial of the title = Theotokos=20 to the Virgin destroy the Gospel of salvation?

Denying the Mother of God the title Theotokos is = tantamount to=20 denying that she bore the Word of God made flesh, a single and = undivided=20 Christ Who is at once both fully God and fully man. It is to suggest = that Mary=20 bore nothing more than a demigod at best. The textbook goes on to note = that this=20 denial divides the Incarnate Christ into two, breaking down the bridge = between=20 God and man and erecting within Christ's Person a middle wall of = partition.=20 Consequently, not only titles of devotion were involved at Ephesus, but = the=20 very message of salvation.

Of further note, relating to questions 6-13, the = Third=20 Ecumenical Council condemned Nestorianism and the notion that there were = two=20 persons existing side by side in Christ =97 God and a man. It affirmed = that=20 Christ's humanity and Divinity were united in One Person (hy-postatic = union),=20 and that the Mother of Jesus would therefore have to be the Mother of = God, the=20 Theotokos.

14. At the false council of 449, two persons = from the=20 theological center of Alexandria fell into the same condition of = self-will as=20 Nestorius had. These two, Dioscorus and Eutyches, created what = heresy?

They created the heresy of Monophysitism.

15. This heresy taught falsely concerning what = aspect of=20 Christ's nature?

The word Monophysitism is etymologically = derived from=20 the Greek words mono (one) and physis (nature). Although = Orthodoxy=20 has more in common with the Monophysites than with any other group of = separated=20 Christians, still there are great dogmatic differences and an = ecclesiastical=20 chasm inasmuch as the Monophysites reject fully half of the Ecumenical = Councils.=20 Monophysitism maintained that if Christ were one Person, He could not = have two=20 natures, but only one. The Monophysites did not deny Christ's divine = nature, but=20 they did deny His unity of personality. This way of thinking endangered = the=20 fullness of Christ's manhood, which became completely swallowed up in = His=20 Divinity. In overemphasizing Christ's Divinity at the expense of His = human=20 nature, this heresy did away with the possibility of salvation. As one = of the=20 Greek Fathers on Mount Athos writes concerning this false teaching: = "If... the=20 eternal Hypostasis of God the Word is not also the Hypostasis of the = assumed=20 flesh, the deification of the compound makeup of man is not possible, in = which=20 case the salvation of man through partaking of the Deified and = Life-giving Flesh=20 of the Lord is also impossible." [Hieromonk Luke of the Holy Monastery = of St.=20 Gregory, Mount Athos, 1994].

The Fourth Ecumenical Council, that of Chalcedon, was = called in=20 451 over Monophysitism, and this heresy was rejected at that Council. As = Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky explains, the Fourth Council = "precisely=20 formulated the manner of the union of the two natures in the one Person = of the=20 Lord Jesus Christ, acknowledging the very essence of this union to be = mystical=20 and inexplicable." [Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, p. 182].

16. The textbook places what seems an odd = emphasis on=20 what it views as a quarrel between two theological schools =97 the = Alexandrian and=20 the Antiochene. In fact, what occurred was that a balance between the = two=20 centers of Orthodox theology was achieved by placing certain questions = before=20 the whole Church catholic. The actual conflict existed between = extremists of=20 these two centers, and it appears incorrect to label them as two = different=20 schools. Give your own impression of the difference of = emphasis of=20 the Alexandrian center and the Antiochene center.

As is well known, the conflict between Rome and = Constantinople=20 over the matter of Roman primacy resulted in two opposing = ecclesiologies.=20 However, as Bishop Auxentios of Photiki observes, the distinction = between a=20 quasi-Nestorian Antiochene school and an Orthodox Alexandrian school = supposedly=20 tainted by Apollinarianism is an artificial and overstated one [Cf.=20 Christological Methods and Their Influence on Alexandrian and = Antiochene=20 Eucharistic Theology, p. 1].

In the same scholarly study, Bishop Auxentios goes on = to=20 explain that concerning the Christological thought and Eucharistic = thought of=20 the Alexandrian and Antiochene patristic schools (and he does identify = them as=20 schools, as does Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky), this matter = is=20 neither artificial or overstated, but is of great importance. Two = representative=20 figures are given of these schools =97 St. Cyril, Patriarch of = Alexandria, and the=20 ecclesiastical writer Theodore of Mopsuestia, who had Nestorian = leanings. As=20 Henry Chadwick observes, the argument between St. Cyril and the = Nestorians was=20 not a political one, as some scholars have contended, but was an = argument rooted=20 in the profound question on the nature of Christ ["Eucharist and = Christology in=20 the Nestorian Controversy," Journal of Theological Studies, vol. = 2, 1951,=20 pp. 145-64.] Bishop Auxentios concurs, stating that the antithetical = strands of=20 these two figures and their radically divergent statements of Eucharist = theology=20 are two antipodes on a spectrum of belief about the nature of = Christ.

Theodore of Mopsuestia was condemned by the Universal = Church=20 for his Nestorian leanings. However, as Bishop Auxentios notes, one = cannot=20 overstate the importance of St. Cyril's Christological teachings. The = Third,=20 Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Ecumenical Councils drew extensively from his = writings=20 in formulating their Christological confessions.

17. Originally the pope of Rome was the first = among=20 equals of the bishops of the Church. When Rome withdrew from the Church, = it was=20 impossible, of course, that the pope could fulfill this position. = According to=20 the canons of the Church, in the event of the presiding bishop's falling = into=20 heresy or being unable to govern, the remaining Orthodox bishops must = assign the=20 presidency to the senior bishop who is Orthodox. What would have to = occur for=20 the pope of Rome to once again be the first among equals?

Rome would have to abandon all its heretical dogmas = and other=20 illicit innovations and convert to Orthodoxy. Such would entail its = rejecting=20 its lust for power and its aspiration to subordinate other bishops under = its=20 authority =97 that is, the idea of papal supremacy. It would likewise = entail its=20 rejecting the doctrine of papal infallibility, something invented in = 1870 and=20 still taught by the Roman Catholic Church today, despite the fact that = =97 to the=20 Latin Church's own admission =97 many Roman popes were heretics, and = despite the=20 fact that the second chapter of the book of Galatians shows that the = Apostle=20 Peter himself was not infallible.

[Professor's addendum: Both papal supremacy and papal = infallibility are the result of earlier heresies and are a root of = further=20 heresies. There are Roman heresies worse than these].

While the loss of the Church of Rome and so many of = its=20 faithful has always weighed heavily upon Orthodoxy and has left an = unhealed=20 wound, and while Orthodoxy would always welcome Rome's return, such a = return is=20 not likely. Rome has been estranged from Christ's Church for one = thousand years.=20 Given the Latin Church's ideology and aggressive politics, its "lies, = intrigue,=20 deception, fanaticism and villainy" (as Dostoyevsky put it), and most of = all its=20 boundless malice and bloody atrocities against Orthodox Christians = throughout=20 the centuries, one cannot even begin to imagine that Rome will ever = return.=20 While many individual Catholics convert to Orthodoxy and find a home in = it, Rome=20 shows an interest only in destroying Orthodoxy and preparing the way for = the=20 throne of the antichrist.

In his book The Keys of This Blood: the Struggle = for World=20 Dominion Between Pope John Paul II, Mikhail Gorbachev and the Capitalist = West (1990), the Roman Catholic writer Malachi Martin shows the = papacy's=20 role in this struggle. While Pope John Paul II was convalescing after = the=20 near-fatal attempt on his life in St. Peter's Square, he had what he = falsely=20 believes was a vision of the Mother of God. In the vision, the pope = states, he=20 was told not to lift a finger to clean out the Latin Church, that it is = already=20 too late. Instead, he is to await a cataclysmic event ...

an event that will fission human history, splitting = the=20 immediate past from the oncoming future. It will be an event on public = view from=20 the skies, in the oceans, and on the continental landmasses of this = planet. It=20 will particularly involve [the] sun.

It is not known if the cataclysm will be another = world war or=20 natural events, or a combination of both, or if it will entail something = supernatural. The pope indicates that the disaster cannot be averted, = that the=20 die is cast =97 but, he believes, it will be a good thing, for it = will=20 bring down all the governments and economic systems of the world, = including=20 capitalism, which he has always equated with materialism. Out of such = chaos, the=20 pope says, the papacy will rise triumphantly to lead the world into a = "new=20 world order" of peace above and beyond ideologies, political and = economic.=20 Martin writes that the pope believes that "this geopolitical mission he = has=20 chosen to fulfill as pope will be crowned with a success that has never=20 registered in the life of any preceding pope." Thus, as John the Baptist = was the=20 herald of Christ at the Jordan, so the pope will be the satanic = herald of the=20 antichrist in the new world order.

To those readers who wonder how the anti-Christian = media can at=20 once belittle Christianity yet exalt the pope, the answer is obvious. = The media=20 accords the pope the worldly glory and advertisement he seeks because he = is an=20 obedient instrument of the globalists. That is, they know that in the = time of=20 the united world government, they can count on the pope to make urgent = appeals=20 for all humanity to bow down and accept the one-world ruler, the = antichrist.

In 1990, Pope Wojtyla issued a statement that the = "messiah" is=20 presently walking on the face of the earth and that all humanity should = be=20 prepared to accept him when he is finally revealed. (It is not clear if = this=20 statement was issued in an encyclical as it was mentioned only briefly = in a=20 newspaper article).

To these evil words spewing forth from the mouth of = the pope,=20 Christ replies: "And then if any man shall say to you, Lo, here is = the=20 Christ; or, lo, he is there; believe him not; for false Christs and = false=20 prophets shall rise, and shall show signs and wonders, to seduce, if it = were=20 possible, even the elect" (Mk 13:21-22).

Moreover, the Russian monks of the Solovki Monastery = handed=20 down the answer that St. Zosimas gave when his disciples asked him how = to=20 recognize the antichrist in the end times. St. Zosimas replied: "When = you=20 hear that Christ has come to earth or has appeared on earth, know then = that this=20 is antichrist."

If anyone claiming false visions appears in the = desert,=20 Christians are not to go out, nor are they to look down to the earth for = Christ=20 any more, even though the pope is telling them to do so. The true = Messiah,=20 Christ, Whom the pope rejects, came in the flesh two thousand = years ago.=20 The Saviour will not again come from this world, but He is to descend = from=20 Heaven. Also, He will not come alone as before, but escorted by myriads = of=20 angels; and not secretly, but openly, shining like lightning (Mt 24:27). = Therefore, let all readers beware of the herald of the antichrist, the = pope of=20 Rome.

18. What was the Monothelite heresy?

The Monothelite heresy was a new form of = Monophysitism. While=20 it correctly maintained that Christ has two natures, it erroneously = reasoned=20 that since He is a single Person, He has but one will. This heresy, like = Monophysitism, impaired the fullness of Christ's manhood since manhood = without a=20 human will would be incomplete. Monothelitism was condemned by the Sixth = Ecumenical Council, which replied that since Christ has two natures, He = must=20 also have two wills =97 one human and one divine.

19. What new and alarming development occurred = in the=20 fifty years preceding the Sixth Ecumenical Council?

The rise of Islam came about at that time. After = conquering=20 Mecca, Mohammed's followers subjugated Egypt, Syria, Palestine and even=20 Jerusalem by force of arms. The new Islamic rulers shed absolute rivers = of=20 Christian blood, and before long, Orthodoxy became almost completely = extinct in=20 Anatolia.

20. What effect did this development have on = the=20 Byzantine Empire?

The Eastern possessions were lost to the Byzantine = Empire, and=20 the three ancient Patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch and Alexandria = came under=20 infidel control. Byzantium was under constant attack from Mohammedan = forces, and=20 although it withstood this onslaught for eight centuries more, it = finally=20 succumbed in 1453. Christianity survived, but with difficulty.

21. What do you feel was the most important = point=20 brought forth in this section of the textbook?

This section covered the Second to the Sixth = Ecumenical=20 Councils. The most significant point concerns the immense importance of = these=20 Councils. As the textbook notes, the Ecumenical Councils resolved the=20 Christological and Trinitarian disputes, they identified and uprooted = the basic=20 heresies, they formed the dogmatic and canonical norms of the Orthodox = faith,=20 and lastly, they worked out the Church's governmental structure. = Concerning the=20 Seventh Ecumenical Council that defended icons, while it seems at first = to stand=20 apart from the preceding six, ultimately it too was concerned with = Christ's=20 Incarnation and man's salvation.

 

4. The Holy = Icons.

1. The struggle against Iconoclasm was not = merely a=20 conflict between two conceptions of Christian art. What three deeper = issues does=20 the textbook point out?

The struggle against Iconoclasm involved the deeper = issues of=20 Christ's human nature, the Christian attitude toward matter, and the = true=20 meaning of Christ's redemption.

2. Those who taught against holy icons may = have been=20 influenced by what outside ideas?

The Iconoclasts were influenced especially by = Nestorianism and=20 by the ideas of the Judaizers.

3. What the textbook refers to as a puritan = outlook was=20 probably a blend of what two influences?

The puritan outlook that condemned icons was an = Asiatic protest=20 against Greek tradition. The text mentions that this attitude was = particularly=20 strong in Asia Minor and that two of the leading Iconoclast emperors, = Leo III=20 and Leo V, were of Asiatic origin. Over and above this fact, though, the = puritan=20 view saw in the words of the Second Commandment a prohibition against = all images=20 and could not see that the commandment applies to the making, bowing = down before=20 and worshipping idols, something repugnant to God. This outlook = therefore saw=20 all images as a form of latent idolatry.

4. How long did the Iconoclast controversy = last?

Iconoclasm was one of the most powerful and prolonged = heretical=20 movements, lasting for some 120 years. The seriousness of this heresy = was=20 increased by the fact that a whole series of Byzantine emperors = energetically=20 championed it for reasons of internal and external politics. Although = the=20 instruments of political power were held by the Iconoclasts, who = destroyed icons=20 and exiled, imprisoned and sometimes even killed the Iconodules, = ultimately=20 their viewpoint was not victorious over Orthodoxy.

5. Which Byzantine ruler in 180 suspended the=20 persecution against the Church?

The Empress Irene suspended the persecution.

6. In what year and in what city did the = Seventh=20 Ecumenical Council meet?

The Seventh Ecumenical Council met in Nicaea in 787. = This=20 Council dealt largely with Iconoclasm, a heresy which closed out the = series of=20 great heresies of the first period of Church history. Iconoclasm was = condemned=20 at this Council.

7. Under what emperor and between what years did the = last=20 persecution of icons take place?

The Byzantine Emperor Leo V started a new attack on = icons in=20 815.

8. The final victory of holy icons in 842 is = known as=20 what?

The victory over the Iconoclast heresy in 842 is = known as the=20 Triumph of Orthodoxy. At that time, the Empress Theodora and her son = Michael=20 ordained that the feast of the Triumph of Orthodoxy should be = established. This=20 feast is observed each year up to the present time on the first Sunday = of Great=20 Lent.

9. Who were the chief defenders of holy = icons?

St. John of Damascus (+749) defended icons during the = first=20 phase of the Iconoclast controversy. St. Theodore of Studium (+826) = defended=20 them when the second phase of persecution broke out under Leo V.

10. Rewrite in your own words the paragraph = titled=20 Icons as Part of the Church's Teaching.

The Church asserts its teaching both by word and = image. What=20 Scripture is for the literate, the icon is for those who lack learning = or lack=20 the time to study written theology. St. John of Damascus advised = Christians to=20 take any outsider inquiring about the faith into a church and place him = in front=20 of the icons, for they are a "revelation and demonstration of that which = is=20 hidden." That is, icons bear witness to the deification of man and are = visible=20 expressions of the dogma of the transfiguration, and they impart to the = world=20 the mysteries of Christianity and the age to come. Because of the = mysterious=20 quality icons have of teaching by image what Scripture teaches by word, = they=20 lead a person towards God. Icons are theology communicated in = images.

11. What was the real heart of the Iconoclast=20 dispute?

The real heart of Iconoclasm was the theology of the=20 Incarnation. Unlike the former heresies that attacked some = particular=20 aspect of the divine economy and the salvation coming from Christ's = Incarnation,=20 Iconoclasm attacked the entire economy of salvation. It was both = a=20 consequence of former Christological controversies and an identical = repetition=20 of errors of the past. "Iconoclasm is the sum of many heresies and = errors,"=20 stated the Fathers of the Seventh Ecumenical Council.

12. Why is it essential to have icons?

Icons are a visual form of theology that accomplish a = silent=20 preaching, and through the centuries they have taught Christians how to = know and=20 love the Lord and His holy ones, the saints. St. Basil the Great says in = his=20 Liturgy that Christ is the icon of God the Father. When Christ appeared = on=20 earth, those who then loved God the Father loved God the Son. Since that = time,=20 those who love icons thereby reaffirm their love for God in visible = form, the=20 God-Man Jesus Christ.

Having and honoring icons is deeply rooted in the = Sacred=20 Apostolic Tradition of Christianity. Dr. Constantine Cavarnos notes this = fact in=20 his book Orthodox Iconography, and he goes on to list seven = important=20 reasons why it is necessary to adhere to this ancient practice. The = professor=20 states that:

(1) The most obvious function of icons is that they = enhance the=20 beauty of a church, an idea that appears in the writings of the Holy = Fathers. A=20 church is the house of God and a house of prayer. As such, it should be = made as=20 beautiful as possible, especially inside, where Christians gather to = worship.=20 The beauty of the church must bear the impress of holiness, and the = pleasure=20 evoked by it must transcend that of mere esthetics. It must be = spiritual.

(2) Icons instruct the faithful in matters pertaining = to the=20 Christian faith, a point emphasized by the Greek Fathers. As St. John of = Damascus remarks, since not everyone is literate, nor has the leisure = for=20 reading, the Holy Fathers agreed that Christ's Incarnation, His = association with=20 men, His miracles, His Crucifixion and Resurrection, and so on, should = be=20 represented on icons. St. Photios, Patriarch of Constantinople, states = that:=20 "Just as speech is transmitted by hearing, so a form through sight is = imprinted=20 on the tablets of the soul, giving to those whose apprehension is not = spoiled by=20 [evil] doctrines a representation of knowledge constant with piety." = Likewise,=20 St. Basil teaches that "what the spoken account presents through the = sense of=20 hearing, the painting silently shows by representation." St. Photios = goes on to=20 add that icons not only teach, as written accounts also do, but in some = cases=20 are more vivid than written accounts and thus are superior to the latter = as a=20 means of instruction. As an example, he gives the representation of the = deeds of=20 the martyrs. Icons present simultaneously and concisely many things: a = place,=20 persons and objects, things that would take an appreciable amount of = time to=20 describe in words.

Also commenting on the icon's capacity to teach, = Leonid=20 Ouspensky and Vladimir Lossky explain that:

The icon contains and professes the same truth as the = Gospels=20 and therefore, like the Gospels, is based on exact concrete data, and in = no way=20 on invention, for otherwise it could not explain the Gospels nor = correspond to=20 them. Thus the icon is placed on a level with the Holy Scriptures and = with the=20 Cross, as one of the forms of revelation and knowledge of God, in which = divine=20 and human will and action become blended [The Meaning of Icons,=20 p.30].

The Fathers of the Seventh Ecumenical Council fully = concurred.=20 They stated that "by means of these two ways which complete one another, = that=20 is, by reading [Scripture] and by the visible image, we gain a knowledge = of the=20 same thing." Thus, the icon is one of the ways God is revealed to man. = Through=20 icons, Christians receive a vision of the spiritual world, for icons are = windows=20 into that world, windows into Heaven, and they are lights which guide us = there.

(3) Being preoccupied with everyday worldly matters = and=20 pursuits, Christians can forget things that are of vital importance =97 = that is,=20 they can fall asleep spiritually. Icons serve as a reminder of the = spiritual=20 realm and as a means of awakening people. St. John of Damascus writes in = this=20 regard that "many times, doubtless, when we do not have in mind the = Passion of=20 the Lord, upon seeing the icon of Christ's Crucifixion, we recall His = saving=20 suffering."

(4) Icons additionally serve to lift Christians up to = the=20 prototypes, to a higher level of consciousness, of thought and feeling. = As Dr.=20 Cavarnos explains:

The prophets, Apostles, martyrs, saints in general, = enjoy a=20 higher level of being than we do in our ordinary, distracted everyday = life. When=20 we see their icons, we recall their superior character and deeds; and as = we=20 recall them, we think pure, sublime thoughts and experience higher = feelings.=20 Thus, for a while we live on a higher plane of being. As St. John = Damascene=20 remarks, "We are led by perceptible icons to the contemplation of the = divine and=20 spiritual" [p. 32].

Metropolitan Laurus of Jordanville further notes = that:

Orthodox iconography is not realistic, but symbolic. = It cannot=20 and should not illustrate anything that is of this world, which lies in = evil,=20 disfigured by sin, carrying in itself the stamp of sin and attracting to = sin.=20 Iconography should not remind one of anything worldly. On the contrary, = it=20 should attract one's thoughts and feelings away from all worldliness and = carry=20 us over into another, higher world, the spiritual world. Not only should = Raphael's madonnas not be found in Orthodox churches, but also all art = that=20 cannot cut us off from everything earthly, art which, even though it = might seem=20 to be inspired and beautiful from the point of view of aesthetics, = nevertheless=20 portrays only worldly images encountered upon earth and bound up with = the world.=20 Iconography, as well as church chant, should completely separate us from = the=20 world. Without this it is not Orthodox and cannot instruct us in = Orthodoxy ["The=20 Significance of the Practical Study of Liturgics," Orthodox Life, = vol.=20 45, no. 4, 1995, pp. 46-47].

Dr. Cavarnos goes on to state that the icon's = essentially=20 symbolic nature is manifest in its ability to lift Christians up to a = higher=20 level. An icon is not an end in itself, it is not merely an aesthetic = object to=20 be enjoyed for whatever artistic merits it possesses, but it is = essentially a=20 symbol, carrying us beyond itself. It is designed to lead us from the = physical=20 and psychophysical to the spiritual realm. Thus, the icon is a pattern=20 (typos) of something heavenly (St. John of Damascus).

(5) Icons serve to inspire people to imitate the = virtues of the=20 holy ones depicted on them. Icons help in this way because of their = capacity to=20 instruct in the Christian faith, to remind people of its truth, aims and = values,=20 and also because of their ability to lift viewers to the prototypes. = Thus, one=20 of the decrees of the Seventh Ecumenical Council states that "the more=20 continually holy personages are seen in icons, the more are the = beholders lifted=20 up to the memory of the prototypes and to an aspiration after them."

(6) Icons have the ability to transform one's = character, one's=20 whole being. Icons help sanctify people. As Metropolitan Hierotheos of = Nafpaktos=20 points out, the Synodikon of Orthodoxy proclaims that by bowing before = holy=20 icons and looking at them, the eyes are sanctified and the nous = (a term=20 the Holy Fathers used to designate the eye of the soul) is lifted up = towards the=20 knowledge of God. Dr. Cavarnos adds that icons help solve the problem of = human=20 transformation and regeneration "by instructing us, reminding us, and = stirring=20 us up morally and spiritually." This function of the icon is based on = the=20 principle that we become like that which we habitually contemplate. True = icons=20 focus the distracted, dispersed soul of man on spiritual perfection, on = the=20 divine, and they arouse in him the desire to emulate those who have = achieved=20 spiritual beauty. Icons incite the beholder "to see more clearly and = steadily=20 Him Who to see is to love, and loving Whom one becomes what He = originally=20 intended us to be." By dwelling steadily and lovingly on such = perfection, the=20 professor concludes, we come to partake of it more and more.

(7) Icons have a liturgical function, serving as a = means of=20 worship and veneration. Like sacred music, the icon is used as a means = of=20 worshiping God and venerating His saints. As such, Dr. Cavarnos = explains, it is=20 "essentially symbolic, leading the soul from the visible to the = invisible, from=20 the material to the spiritual, from the symbol to the prototype or = original=20 which it represents." The professor sums up the liturgical function of = icons in=20 his notation that:

Neither God nor the saints, of course, need the honor = which we=20 offer them, be it by means of icons, or by means of hymns and music. But = it is=20 only proper for us to do so, as the adoration of God and the admiration = of=20 saints are expressions of a soul that sees and loves the beauty of = holiness, of=20 spiritual perfection, and feels grateful to the Deity and to holy men = for their=20 many benefactions to mankind. Such a response is not merely something = proper for=20 us, but it is also conducive to our salvation. The following remark of = John=20 Damascene calls to attention this point, and at the same time it has a = bearing=20 on several of the functions served by icons: "I enter the common=20 place-of-therapy of souls, the church, choked as it were by the thorns = of=20 worldly thoughts. The bloom of painting attracts me, it delights my = sight like a=20 meadow, and secretly evokes in my soul the desire to glorify God. I = behold the=20 martyr, the crowns awarded, and my zeal is aroused like fire; I fall = down and=20 worship God through the martyr, and receive salvation" [p. 34].

Iconoclasm, the condemnation of icons, results when = the=20 important function of icons is not understood, and when the crucial = distinction=20 between honorable reverence and worship is overlooked. The = failure=20 to differentiate between these two categories was the cause of the = Byzantine=20 Emperor Leo the Isaurian's issuing an edict in 726 that condemned the = making and=20 veneration of icons as contrary to the Second Commandment, and as = idolatry.

Following the upheaval against iconography on the = part of the=20 Iconoclasts, the Seventh Ecumenical Council expressed the dogma of the=20 veneration of holy icons in the following words:

We therefore... define with all certitude and = accuracy that=20 just as the figure of the precious and life-giving Cross, so also the = venerable=20 and holy images... should be set forth in the holy churches of God [for=20 veneration].... For by so much more frequently as they are seen in = artistic=20 representation [that is, the Lord Jesus Christ, the Theotokos, the = angels and=20 saints who are depicted in the icons], by so much more readily are men = lifted up=20 to the memory of their prototypes, and to a longing after them. And to = these=20 should be given due salutation and honorable reverence [Greek: = timetike,=20 proskynesis], not indeed that true worship of faith [Greek: = latreia]=20 which pertains alone to the divine nature; but to these... incense and = lights=20 may be offered.... For the honor which is paid to the image passes on to = that=20 which the image represents [Eerdmans Seven Ecumenical Councils, = p.=20 550].

The Greek Fathers distinguish very sharply between = "honorable=20 reverence" which is accorded to icons, and "worship." The veneration of = icons is=20 reverential respect or admiration, whereas worship is accorded only = to=20 God. Moreover, the Fathers emphasized that the veneration given to = icons=20 goes to the prototype that it represents =97 that is, to Christ, the = Theotokos, to=20 some martyr or other saint. In the words of St. Basil, which were = repeated by=20 St. John of Damascus and other defenders of icons, "The honor which is = given to=20 the icons passes over to the prototype." That is, in venerating icons, = the honor=20 one renders to the images passes to the person represented on the image. = Therefore, the charge of idolatry shows gross ignorance with regard to = the=20 nature and function of icons.

As the same charge of idolatry is sometimes repeated = today, it=20 is necessary to emphasize that Orthodox do not approach icons as idols, = but as=20 the spiritual image of the one to whom the soul addresses itself in = prayer. It=20 is also necessary to point out that the strict prohibition in Scripture = against=20 the making of idols and the worship of them does not apply to Christian = icons.=20 Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky explains that the images of false = gods, and=20 people's worship of them, entailed the worship of demons (or else = imaginary=20 beings that have no existence), and thus it entailed the worship of = lifeless=20 objects themselves (wood, stone or gold). Scripture strictly instructs = that one=20 is to put a difference between holy and unholy, between=20 unclean and clean (cf. Lev 10:10). The person who cannot = see the=20 difference between sacred images and idols blasphemes and defiles icons. = Such a=20 person commits sacrilege and is subject to the condemnation in Sacred = Scripture,=20 which warns: "Thou that abhorrest idols, dost thou commit = sacrilege?"=20 (Rom 2:22).

St. Nikolai Velimirovich also addresses the charges = of idolatry=20 made against Orthodoxy over its veneration of icons. The bishop = asks:

Who has waged war against idolatry through the ages, = if not the=20 Orthodox Church, millions of whose faithful have sacrificed themselves = in this=20 victorious battle? Who else has destroyed idolatry? So how could the = Church that=20 has destroyed idolatry be idolatrous? [Homilies: a Commentary on the = Gospel=20 Readings for Great Feasts and Sundays Throughout the Year, vol. 1, = p.=20 137].

A hieromonk notes that Calvinists disdain icons, = based on their=20 rejection of the Seventh Ecumenical Council. However, as he goes on to = point=20 out, as the fundamental concern of all the Ecumenical Councils was=20 Christological and soteriological, the obdurate refusal to recognize = even one of=20 them signifies in and of itself a major departure from basic Christian = doctrine.=20 Also, as another hieromonk explains (a former Episcopalian), after = Protestants=20 threw icons out of their churches through the doors, they brought = them=20 back in through the windows. That is, icons were reintroduced = into=20 Protestant churches through stained glass windows. And, = the=20 hieromonk adds, Protestants do not regard these icons as graven=20 images.

No doubt the most rabid attack against icons comes = from the=20 Jehovah's Witnesses, even though these people have pictures =97 = icons =97 of=20 their loved ones in their wallets and homes. Once when a Greek bishop = was=20 reviled by one of the witnesses over the matter of icons, the bishop = asked the=20 witness to show him some pictures of his family members. When the = witness=20 produced pictures from his wallet, the bishop reminded him that the = Jehovah's=20 Witnesses are against icons, meaning that he should tear up all these = pictures,=20 as well as all his pictures at home. When the witness replied that he = does not=20 worship these pictures, the bishop stated that likewise, neither do the = Orthodox=20 worship images. The Orthodox, he explained, honor and kiss icons, which = is=20 passed along to the archetype, as the Fathers and teachers of the Church = have=20 stated. The bishop continued, saying that when the witness' mind and = heart go=20 out to his loved ones in the pictures, he does not call this idolatry. = Neither=20 therefore can the Orthodox be accused of idolatry because they venerate = icons.=20 The icon itself is not an object of worship.

There are many idols in the modern age, among which = are luxury,=20 wealth, recognition, and many other things to which people attach more=20 importance than God. Some who spend their entire lives in the pursuit of = these=20 and other idols of the world, and in serving mammon rather than God, = would=20 accuse Orthodoxy of idolatry because of its veneration of icons. = However, the=20 obvious fact remains that icons are not idols.

The attack on icons now seems to be abating. For some = time,=20 there has been a return in the West to the icon, which was forgotten for = the=20 space of so many centuries.

** ** **

The use of images has its beginnings in Old Testament = times.=20 During the forty years of wandering in the desert, the Hebrews made camp = on=20 Mount Sinai for a whole year, and there, at God's command, they = constructed a=20 tabernacle, a transportable sanctuary, in the form of a tent. Inside the = tabernacle's holy of holies was the Ark of the Covenant, which was a = wooden=20 chest covered inside and out with gold, and upon which were two = golden images=20 of the Cherubim (Exodus 25:18-22). St. John of Damascus traces the = origin=20 of iconography back to this time, to the Mosaic people, who = "venerated on=20 all hands the tabernacle, which was an image [eikon in Greek] and = pattern=20 of heavenly things, or rather of the whole of creation" [Migne, PG, = 1864, vol.=20 94, cols. 1168-76]. (The word icon is a transliteration of the = Greek=20 eikon. In Greek it means image, likeness, representation).

It is important to note here that the same Moses, = through=20 whom God gave the commandment against graven images, received at the = same time=20 an order from God to place representations of the Cherubim in the inner = part of=20 the temple to which people turned for the worship of God. Therefore, = the=20 fact that God Himself gave instructions to include images =97 = icons =97 in=20 the place of worship completely nullifies the mistaken notion = that all=20 images are prohibited by the Second Commandment.

While there are numerous depictions on the walls and = curtains=20 of the Old Testament Temple, there were no depictions of the departed = righteous=20 ones like those seen in the Christian Church. The reason for their = absence is=20 because the righteous ones of Old Testament times were awaiting their=20 deliverance, were waiting to be brought up out of hades. This = deliverance was=20 accomplished by the descent into hades and Resurrection of Christ. As = the=20 Apostle Paul writes: "They without us should not be made perfect" (Heb = 11:40).=20 The righteous ones of the Old Testament were glorified as saints only in = the New=20 Testament.

Christ, the Incarnate God, sanctified the use of = icons through=20 a miraculous image He sent to Abgar, the ruler of the neighboring = kingdom of=20 Edessa. Abgar, who had leprosy, had heard of Christ's preaching and = miracles=20 during His public ministry and had heard that He was not welcome by many = in=20 Judea. He therefore sent his court artist, Ananias, to invite Jesus to = come to=20 his kingdom. If He did not come, then Ananias was to paint His portrait = so that=20 at least the king could see an image of His face, for he felt that if he = could=20 just see what this remarkable Individual looked like, somehow he would = be=20 healed.

Ananias, upon seeing the Lord-Healer, tried several = times to=20 capture His image. However, he was unable to set His face down on the = linen, for=20 Jesus' face gave out rays of some unearthly light, it is said. At that = time,=20 Jesus, knowing all things, and knowing the sincere desire of the king, = pressed a=20 cloth to His face and imprinted the character of His divine image upon = it. He=20 then gave the image to Ananias with the message that one of His = disciples would=20 visit King Abgar to heal that which the image did not heal.

When the king beheld this sacred image, the first = Christian=20 icon, he was cured of his leprosy, save for one small spot on his = face.=20 Later, after Christ's death and Resurrection, the holy disciple Thaddeus = of the=20 seventy went to Edessa and preached the Gospel of Life to the king and = those=20 with him. Having received enlightenment and knowledge of the True God, = all of=20 them received Baptism, at which time the last spot of leprosy left the = king.

This sacred image of Christ was carefully preserved = in Edessa=20 for many centuries, even during the persecution of the Church. It was=20 subsequently transferred to Constantinople in 944, where it was brought = out in=20 procession and veneration once each year. Later, during the Fourth = Crusade in=20 1204, the image disappeared and was never revealed again.

(In the Fourth Crusade, for three days Orthodox = Christian blood=20 ran in the streets of Constantinople as a massive amount of art, = treasures and=20 monuments were stolen from churches and carried off to the West as = plunder. In=20 this officially sponsored robbery, the Latin marauders placed = prostitutes upon=20 the altars of Orthodox churches as they went about a wanton spree of = murder,=20 pillage and sacrilege. To assuage their notorious greed for booty, they = tore to=20 pieces the altar and iconostasis of the Church of the Holy Wisdom in=20 Constantinople and brought mules into the sanctuary to carry the gold = and silver=20 away. This systematic looting was undertaken by the Latin clergy, to = whom it=20 proved an irresistible chance of a lifetime to enrich Western Europe's = abbeys=20 and monasteries with Byzantium's holiest relics =97 reputedly = Christendom's finest=20 collection).

All icons of Christ were made from the same prototype = and=20 pattern of this holy napkin until its disappearance in the Fourth = Crusade.=20 Moreover, as it is shown with this first Christian icon, icons are=20 Apostolic, they are healing, and they even pre-date the = Gospels being written down.

The Evangelist Luke painted icons, the first of which = was the=20 Vladimir icon of the Mother of God holding the Pre-Eternal Child. There = still=20 exist today many icons painted by St. Luke.

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky states that it is = natural to=20 suppose that in the early history of Christianity, the first need was = that the=20 people be drawn away from pagan idol-worship, and only later could there = be=20 brought into being the idea of the fullness of forms for glorifying God = and His=20 saints. Among these forms there is a place for glorification in colors, = in=20 sacred images.

The use of icons by Christians, as was noted, goes = back to the=20 first century of Christianity. Ecclesiastical archaeology has found that = in the=20 ancient Christian Church, there were sacred images in the catacombs and = other=20 places of assembly for prayer. A rudimentary art existed among = Christians of the=20 first two centuries. It employed such forms as the dove (a symbol of the = peace=20 of Christ), the fish and the Shepherd (symbols of Christ), and the = peacock (a=20 symbol of the Resurrection). Also, as early as the first century, = Christians=20 used representations of events in Holy Scripture on their tombs, and = pictorial=20 representations of events from the life of Christ, dating most likely = from the=20 early part of the second century, have been found in catacombs of Rome = and=20 Alexandria. Until the outbreak of Iconoclasm in 726, iconographic=20 representations increased with each succeeding century, and iconography = became=20 more refined.

Before a board has the countenance of Christ = portrayed on it,=20 it is only a piece of wood. Once the image of Christ is painted on it, = however,=20 the wood becomes sanctified and is a source of = sanctification for=20 people, even if the wood is of inferior quality. This ability to = sanctify is=20 seen in the beginning of the repentance and conversion of the Bulgarian = people=20 to Orthodox Christianity, something that happened because of an icon of = the Last=20 Judgment. When St. Methodius showed it to King Boris and explained it, = the icon=20 made such an impression on him that Boris, and along with him all the = Bulgarian=20 people, came to believe in Christ. Something this extraordinary could = happen=20 because, as St. Seraphim of Sarov explains, the grace of God works = through=20 icons. The saint goes on to state that icons heal sinners,

... and not only their bodies, but their souls, too, = so that=20 even sinners, according to their faith in the grace of Christ present in = the=20 icons, were saved and attained the Kingdom of Heaven.

St. John of Kronstadt further instructs that:

If anyone would ask you why you pray to soulless = icons, what=20 profit you derive from them, say that we derive incomparably greater = profit from=20 our icons than we do from the kindest and most benevolent living = persons; say=20 that blessed power and help to our souls always comes to us through the = icons,=20 saving us from sins, sorrows and sicknesses, especially from the icons = of the=20 Saviour and of the Mother of God; that one single look with faith upon = them, as=20 upon the living and those who are near to us, saves us from cruel = sorrows,=20 passions and spiritual darkness; that if touching the Saviour=92s = garment, and the=20 garments and handkerchiefs of the Apostles could restore health to the = sick,=20 much more are the images of the Saviour and the Mother of God powerful = to heal=20 believers of every affliction, in accordance with their faith in the = Lord and=20 His Mother.

Archimandrite Panteleimon of Jordanville explains = that the most=20 powerful witness to the holiness of icons is the innumerable signs and = miracles=20 that the Lord condescends to accomplish through them, especially through = those=20 termed miraculous. Orthodox Russia abounded with these icons, and = several=20 have been brought to North America. Fr. Panteleimon notes that these = icons are=20 fountains of healing and have cured people of many afflictions = =97 some=20 from despondency, some from passions, some from life's sorrows, and some = from=20 bodily illnesses, and he notes that these icons have healed each and = everyone=20 alike from wounds of the soul, from sins.

To have icons and venerate them by honoring them is = an=20 Apostolic Tradition, one that Christians are bound to revere and = observe.=20 However, this tradition refers only to holy (or Byzantine) = icons =97=20 that is, icons of the solemn, spiritual and hieratic style that depict = deified=20 humanity. Through their spiritual expression, these traditional icons = inspire=20 compunction and raise people up from the world of matter to the world of = spirit,=20 to the holy prototypes, and to God. Traditional icons are faithful to = the=20 highest degree to the spirit of Apostolic Tradition.

There is a great difference between Orthodox = iconography and=20 Western religious painting. Since the Italian Renaissance of the = fourteenth=20 century, the Latin Church began to abandon the sacred art of the ancient = Christian period, and it began to employ naturalistic, carnal religious=20 paintings that hold mankind captive to the world of matter and flesh. In = this=20 new Western religious art, sacred subjects served as a pretext to = express the=20 subjective feelings and ideas of a painter, and oftentimes crudely = sensual and=20 sentimental elements would creep into the features of the subjects, = giving an=20 insipid quality to the art. Commenting on the West's great deviation = from=20 Orthodox iconography, Protopriest Victor Potapov writes that:

In the Orthodox notion, an icon depicts the world = glorified; in=20 it there ought not to be anything earthly or worldly. Therefore, the = techniques=20 of depiction are altogether different from those that are used in = realistic=20 painting.

Rome has completely departed from classic Byzantine=20 fundamentals. This was expressed particularly forcefully during the = epoch of the=20 Renaissance. The very philosophical direction of this period hymns man's = egoism=20 and powerfulness, his self-perception in the surrounding material = environment.=20 As a result, the ecclesiastical art of the West also headed along this = path =97=20 along the path of free creativity, independent of the Church and its = enactments.=20 A free attitude toward Church ideas and a mixing of Church traditions = with=20 contemporary reality resulted in Western religious art allowing the = distortion=20 of the sacred image by striving toward human, earthly sensuality.

That which the ancient Church so painstakingly = avoided =97 the=20 influence of antique pagan painting and realism =97 was in full measure = reborn in=20 Western Christianity and has covered the walls of the largest Catholic = churches=20 and cathedrals. Naked bodies, contemporary dress and decor became the = norm,=20 while spiritual beauty was reduced to something worldly and everyday=20 [Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy].

The great chasm between Byzantine iconography and = Western=20 religious art can be seen in a Western madonna, where the Mother of God = is=20 depicted as a woman no different from all other women. (At times, it is = even=20 blasphemous. An example is a painting by Fouquet in which the king's = mistress is=20 used in place of the Mother of God). On the other hand, an icon of the = Theotokos=20 imparts the fragrance of sanctity and communicates the divine = motherhood. In the=20 Mother of God of Vladimir, for example, one can feel the spirit of = faith, the=20 imprint of Orthodoxy. Likewise, where Western paintings portray the = Infant=20 Saviour as a helpless, naked baby indistinguishable from all other = babies, an=20 Orthodox icon shows Him as the fully clothed Eternal Word, and shows the = teaching of the Church on the Incarnation of God and Divine Wisdom.

In eighteenth-century Russia, and then among the = Greeks after=20 the Revolution of 1821, innovative icons modeled after Roman Catholic = paintings=20 of the Renaissance were introduced. Like their Western prototypes, these = icons=20 were ostentations, worldly and devoid of spirituality. The outstanding = Russian=20 philosopher and gifted writer, Prince Evgenii Nikolaevich Trubetskoi, = examines=20 these realistic paintings of the Western models and notes that they = depict=20 Christ and the saints with "puffy faces," "red mouths," "thick arms," = "fat=20 thighs," and the like. He remarks that "icons must not be painted from = living=20 people," because "an icon is not a portrait, but a prototype of the = future=20 man-within-the-Church" [Icons: Theology in Color, pp. 20-22.]. As = Dr.=20 Cavarnos further remarks, the aspect of the figures depicted must be = unworldly,=20 ascetic, their features refined, spiritualized.

In his book Victories of Orthodoxy, Dr. = Cavarnos gives=20 some additional noteworthy observations on the difference between true = icons and=20 those influenced by Western paintings. He explains that:

Modernistic icons, being naturalistic, secular in = expression,=20 instead of lifting us up from the natural, material realm, leave us = prisoners in=20 it. They focus the attention of the beholder on the body as such, = whereas=20 a true icon, a traditional icon, focuses the attention on = the=20 soul, on its virtues and holiness, as experienced through = the=20 body, particularly the face, above all the eyes.

Modernistic icons seek to express physical = beauty=20 untransfigured by spiritual beauty, and thereby to please the = contemplator by=20 sensuous qualities, whereas the traditional icon seeks to express = spiritual beauty, and thus to awaken in a person an aspiration = for it=20 [pp. 66-67].

Western icons patterned after Western religious = paintings are=20 not only unrelated to the Orthodox Christian faith, but are contrary to = it,=20 since their expression is carnal, not spiritual. The tradition to honor = icons=20 does not apply to innovative icons modeled after Roman Catholic = paintings of the=20 Italian Renaissance. In fact, it is an infringement of Apostolic = Tradition to=20 use worldly icons.

Fortunately, the deviation from iconographic = tradition has=20 largely ceased, and with the restoration of Byzantine icons, Orthodoxy = has wan a=20 great victory over a new form of Iconoclasm. Moreover, traditional = iconography,=20 with its unsurpassed beauty, has commanded such high respect that = Byzantine=20 icons are sought-after throughout the world, even by the non-Orthodox. = As=20 Michael Whelton, a convert to Orthodoxy, writes, even when he and his = wife were=20 still Roman Catholics, "iconographic art always struck us as a more = mature=20 religious art form." [Two Paths... p. 15.] Mr. Whelton's = observations are=20 echoed in Herbert Reed, a famous English aesthetician and art critic, = who wrote:=20 "Byzantine painting is the highest form of religious painting that = Christianity=20 has known" [The Meaning of Art, p. 117].

A Greek monk remarked in a lecture that Satan, = realizing that=20 the Church has saved countless souls through the centuries through = icons,=20 presents a parody of icons =97 that is, fallen, evil images, on TV and = in the=20 movies. As another monk noted, whereas icons, being windows into Heaven, = remind=20 one of the importance of the spiritual life, thus sanctifying and saving = a=20 person, the evil images presented on TV, being windows into hell, = accustom=20 people to terrible sins without showing the disastrous results. As he = went on to=20 state, fallen visual entertainment has come to dominate the world to an=20 incredible degree, and brainwashing people and changing their outlook on = life as=20 it does, it gradually destroys a person.

Because the Orthodox Christian home is like a family = Church=20 (Rom. 16:5), an Orthodox chooses an eastern wall or corner of a room in = which to=20 set up an icon corner. In this area are icons of Christ, the Theotokos, = and=20 those saints to whom one regularly prays. According to a tradition = dating to the=20 time when Christians held their services in the catacombs, oil-burning = lampadas=20 are kept lit in front of the icons (never votive candles).

At the Russian monastery in Jordanville, New York, = the flames=20 burning in front of the icons throughout the churches were brought over = from=20 those burning before Christ's tomb in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher = in=20 Jerusalem. The Russian monks at Jordanville, following the practice of = the monks=20 on Mount Athos, instruct that the flames of the lampadas should be low, = or what=20 they call passionless. That is, the flames should burn steadily and not = flicker.=20 With a low flame, one is not distracted when one prays before icons.

It is an ancient custom to take icons on journeys. = Recently the=20 remains of a Russian ship, the Slava Rossii, which went down off = the=20 southern coast of France in 1870, were discovered. Recovered from the = wreckage=20 were over eighty small metal icons used by the sailors in their daily = devotions.=20 One authority writes of this find:

Why were such metal icons so numerous aboard the = Slava Rossii?=20 Ever since the early Christian period, icons had functioned as palladia = =97 that=20 is, as protectors. The sailors =85 in carrying such icons were probably = expressing=20 their native devoutness and the natural desire to be kept safe from harm = [Diane=20 Le Berrurieur, "Icons from the Deep," Archaeology, vol. 41, no. = 6, 1998,=20 p. 27].

Like the Russian sailors, one ought to maintain this = ancient=20 custom when traveling by taking along a small diptych or triptych icon. = When one=20 stops for the night or takes a rest during one's travels, one should = determine=20 the direction of east and pray facing in that direction before the = icons.=20 Praying facing east is an ancient Christian custom mentioned by St. = Basil the=20 Great in his treatise On the Holy Spirit. This Holy Father writes = that=20 "we all look to the east in our prayers, but few of us know that we are = seeking=20 our own old country, Paradise, which God planted in the east."

In venerating icons, one should approach them with = the same=20 reverence and love that one reserves for the Holy Cross and Holy = Scriptures. One=20 venerates icons in order to communicate the reverence, respect and love = that one=20 holds for the subject of an icon. As it is not unusual for people to = kiss the=20 pictures of their beloved ones, so likewise Christians, as pilgrims in = this=20 fallen world, should reverently kiss the images of the holy persons in = Heaven =97=20 the Saviour, His All-Pure Mother, and the martyrs and other saints.

13. What did the Iconoclasts fail to take into = account=20 by repudiating icons depicting God the Son?

By rejecting any representation of Christ, the = Iconoclasts=20 failed to take into account the full meaning of the Incarnation. As the = textbook=20 points out, the dispute about holy icons was inseparably bound up with = the=20 teaching about the Person of Christ, and it points out that Iconoclasm = is=20 essentially a blend of influences from Nestorianism and the ideas of the = Judaizers. The prefatory notes to the course therefore conclude that it = is safe=20 to say that that all people who revile or slander holy icons, or who = seek to=20 humanize or Westernize them, have a non-Christian view of some aspects = of=20 Christ's Person and of the nature of redemption.

14. In this paragraph, the element of Nestorianism = (or modern=20 Unitarianism) in Iconoclasm is more clearly seen. Iconoclasm betrayed = the=20 Incarnation by allowing no place to what, and forgetting about = what?

Iconoclasm betrayed the Incarnation in that it = allowed no place=20 for Christ's humanity or His Body. The heresy also overlooked the fact = that man=20 is to be saved and transfigured in both soul and body. St. John = of=20 Damascus addressed the issue of matter, which was so much of a = problem=20 for the Iconoclasts, in his explanation that:

Of old, God the incorporeal and uncircumscribed was = not=20 depicted at all. But now that God has appeared in the flesh and lived = among men,=20 I make an image of the God Who can be seen. I do not worship matter, but = I=20 worship the Creator of matter, Who for my sake became material and = deigned to=20 dwell in matter, Who through matter affected my salvation. I do not = cease from=20 worshiping the matter through which my salvation has been affected.

Orthodox believe that salvation is definitely = connected to=20 matter, for salvation is realized in the hypostatic union of God and = human=20 flesh.

15. Summarize the last paragraph on page 41 of = the=20 textbook in your own words.

The Iconoclasts, in their rejection of any = representation of=20 the human image of God, failed to understand the full meaning of the = Incarnation=20 and presented a danger to this fundamental doctrine of Christianity. = They were=20 essentially dualists: they wanted a religion freed from all contact with = anything material, which they regarded as defiled, and they felt that = anything=20 spiritual must necessarily be non-material. As noted, such a view left = no place=20 for Christ's humanity or His Body. In their denial of the sanctification = of=20 matter in general, the Iconoclasts denied the deification of man in = particular.=20 That is, in their refusal to accept the consequences of the Incarnation, = which=20 is the sanctification of the material world, they overlooked the fact = that man=20 is to be saved and transfigured not only in soul, but in body. = Iconoclasm was=20 therefore much more than a controversy about religions art: the = attack on=20 icons was an attack on Christ's Incarnation and on the whole economy of=20 salvation.

16. The Orthodox doctrine of icons is bound up = with what=20 Orthodox belief?

The Orthodox doctrine of icons is bound up with the = belief that=20 all of God's creation =97 material as well as spiritual =97 is to be = redeemed and=20 transfigured. God's taking a material body demonstrates that matter can = be=20 redeemed. As St. John of Damascus explained: "The Word made flesh has = deified=20 the flesh." Thus God has deified matter and made it=20 Spirit-bearing. If flesh so became a vehicle of the Spirit, so = too can=20 wood and paint, though in a different way.

In her book The Artistic Unity of the = Russian=20 Orthodox Church: Religion, Liturgy, Icons and Architecture, = Dr. Jane=20 de Vyver gives additional insight along these lines. She explains that = the=20 material world, though fallen, is good, because God created it and = became=20 incarnate in it. Sanctified by creation and incarnation the material = world is=20 called to participate in sanctification and be restored to its original=20 beauty.

The same author, a professor of humanities, = philosophy and=20 cultural history, also notes that whenever the physical realm is = regarded as=20 evil, base and corrupt, the arts diminish. For example, the = sixteenth-century=20 Protestant reformer John Calvin rejected most arts, especially the = visual,=20 precisely because of his negative view of the body and all things = physical. This=20 tradition continues to be strong in the United States, Dr. de Vyver=20 observes.

17. What source does the textbook omit in this = discussion which ought to have been included, since it is the only = source of the=20 correct interpretation of Scripture?

First, any discussion of the Byzantine period of = Church history=20 would have to include =97 in addition to the heresies and the Ecumenical = Councils=20 that repudiated them =97 a discussion of Holy Scripture itself. It was = during this=20 period that the books of the Bible as we know them today were produced = in the=20 Orthodox Church. That is, of the numerous copies of various Scriptures = then in=20 existence, including many false "scriptures," Scripture was canonized = from among=20 the writings of the Apostles and early disciples. As Fr. John Whiteford=20 explains:

The primary purpose in the Church's establishing an=20 authoritative list of books which were to be received as Sacred = Scripture was to=20 protect the Church from spurious books which claimed Apostolic = authorship, but=20 were in fact the work of heretics, such as the "Gospel of Thomas." = Heretical=20 groups could not base their teachings on Holy Tradition because their = teachings=20 originated from outside the Church. So the only way they could claim any = authoritative basis for their heresies was to twist the meaning of = Scriptures=20 and to forge new books in the names of the Apostles or Old Testament = saints.

In establishing an authoritative list of sacred books = that were=20 received by all as being divinely inspired and of genuine Old Testament = or=20 Apostolic origin, the Church did not intend to imply that all of the = Christian=20 faith and all information necessary for worship and good order in the = Church was=20 contained in these writings. In fact, by the time the Church settled the = canon=20 of Scripture, it was already, in its faith and worship, essentially=20 indistinguishable from the Church of later periods. This is an historic=20 certainty. As for the structure of Church authority, it was Orthodox=20 bishops, gathered together in various Councils, who settled the = question of=20 the canon. The Church as we know it was in place before the Bible = as we=20 know it was in place [Sola Scriptura: an Orthodox Analysis of the = Cornerstone=20 of Reformation Theology, pp. 11-12; emphasis added].

Secondly, it was during this period that the Holy = Fathers=20 explained Scripture. Although the textbook does not mention this=20 development, it is an immensely important one in the history of the = Church, for=20 the Fathers are the only source of the correct interpretation of = Scripture.

As the textbook gives short shrift to the Fathers, = this subject=20 requires further comment. St. Justin Martyr (+165), the = leading=20 Christian apologist of the second century, explicitly equates the Holy = Fathers=20 with the Holy Apostles. He writes that: "Among them, in essence, = there is no=20 difference: the same God-Man Christ lives, acts, enlivens and makes them = all=20 eternal in equal measure."

Also concerning the Holy Fathers, Protopresbyter = Michael=20 Pomazansky explains that:

For guidance in questions of faith, for the correct=20 understanding of Sacred Scripture, and in order to distinguish the = authentic=20 Tradition of the Church from false teachings, we appeal to the works of = the Holy=20 Fathers of the Church, acknowledging that the unanimous = agreement=20 of all the Fathers and teachers of the Church in teaching of the faith = is an=20 undoubted sign of truth. The Holy Fathers stood for the truth, fearing = neither=20 threats nor persecutions nor death itself. The patristic explanations of = the=20 truths of the faith 1) gave precision to the expression of the truths of = Christian teaching and created a unity of dogmatic language; 2) added=20 testimonies of these truths from Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition, = and also=20 brought forth from them arguments based on reason. In theology, = attention is=20 also given to certain private opinions of the Holy Fathers or teachers = of the=20 Church on questions which have not been precisely defined and accepted = by the=20 whole Church. However, these opinions are not to be confused with = dogmas, in the=20 precise meaning of the word. There are some private opinions of certain = Fathers=20 and teachers which are not recognized as being in agreement with the = general=20 catholic faith of the Church, and are not accepted as a guide to faith=20 [Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, pp. 37-38].

The True Church established by Christ rests upon the = foundation=20 of the Holy Apostles and the Holy Fathers, who are the=20 Apostles' successors in nature and essence. As Metropolitan = Hierotheos of=20 Nafpaktos explains, the Holy Fathers are the successors of the Holy = Apostles not=20 simply through the transmission of the grace of the priesthood, but = because=20 they themselves also reached the same experience as the = Apostles.

(Since chapter 8 answer 14 deals with the Apostle = Peter's=20 admonition that "no prophecy of Scripture is of private interpretation" = [2 Peter=20 1:20], the matter of the Holy Fathers' exegesis of Scripture will be = explored in=20 greater depth at that juncture).

18. What do you feel was the most significant = point=20 presented in this lesson?

The most significant point is that icons are = sanctified and are=20 a source of sanctification through which the grace of God works, and = that=20 through them, one is put on the path of salvation. Also of immense = importance is=20 that the icon is equal to the Scriptures in its capacity to teach. St. = Basil the=20 Great expresses this truth when he states that "that which the word [of=20 Scripture] communicates by sound, the painting shows silently by=20 representation." The Fathers of the Seventh Ecumenical Council agreed, = for they=20 also stated that the two mediums accompany one another and that through = them one=20 gains a knowledge of the same thing.

19. What questions did this section of the = textbook=20 raise in your mind and then leave unanswered?

Some Protestants consider the chief proponent of = Iconoclasm,=20 the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Copronymus, to the spiritual ancestor = of=20 Luther and Calvin. Because of that connection and the Protestant world's = traditional disdain of icons, questions arose about how ancient heresies = in=20 general =97 and Iconoclasm in particular =97 manifested themselves in = Protestant=20 theology. Needless to say, this question is outside the purview of the = textbook=20 and can be researched elsewhere.

[Professor's addendum: Actually, early Western = theology (from=20 the incorrect opinions of Augustine onward) was based on Platonism. = Later=20 Western theology was based on Aristotle, but on a peculiar version. It = was based=20 on the Moslem sage Avicenna's commentaries on Aristotle. Protestantism = is=20 something of a combination of Moslem/Aristotelian ideas and Gnosticism. = Luther=20 and Calvin must count as their forerunners Augustine (thus Plato), = Avicenna (and=20 his interpretations of Aristotle), and the European Gnostics. However, = as you=20 say, this is something for later. It is covered in our fourth = course].

 

5. Saints, Monks and=20 Emperors.

1. The textbook gives one of the reasons why = Byzantium=20 was called the icon of the heavenly Jerusalem. What = was the=20 reason?

The description of Byzantium as the icon of the = heavenly=20 Jerusalem refers to the all-pervasive influence of Christianity upon all = aspects=20 of Byzantine life and upon all strata of society, from the clergy to the = laity,=20 and from the court and scholars to the poor and uneducated. The textbook = cites=20 examples of this influence: how the circus events began with the singing = of=20 hymns, how trade contracts invoked the Trinity and were sealed with the = sign of=20 the Cross, and how ordinary citizens would discuss and philosophize = about the=20 Trinitarian and Christological disputes of the day in the marketplaces = and in=20 their business interactions.

The example of the circus is an unfortunate one, = given the=20 repeated denunciations of this spectacle in the homilies of St. John = Chrysostom.=20 The textbook could have given any number of different examples to show = how great=20 Christianity's impact was on Byzantium. Not mentioned, but a good = example of=20 that influence, is that Constantinople was said to have become like a = monastic=20 kingdom. It was also called a second Jerusalem as it was a city of = numerous=20 churches and shrines. The grace of God rested upon it.

2. We understand that the Ecumenical Councils = were=20 conducted by imperfect men. However, who guided them and filled their=20 shortcomings, leading them to the truth?

The bishops who attended the Ecumenical Councils were = guided by=20 the Holy Spirit, Who filled their human deficiencies and led them to the = truth.

3. What played a decisive part in the religious life = of=20 Byzantium and in all Orthodox countries?

Monasticism played this part. In Eastern Orthodoxy, = the bishops=20 are chosen from among the monks, and the greatest Fathers and = theologians have=20 also come from the ranks of the monastics.

4. What is the significance of = monasticism?

Today in the "television generation," very little is = known=20 about the institution of monasticism and its contribution to = civilization. When=20 monks or nuns are portrayed on TV, this portrayal is generally done with = utter=20 lack of seriousness, if not downright mockery. For this reason, = monasticism is=20 not understood in the secular West.

There are other reasons as well for that lack of = understanding.=20 Many people no longer read, and also, the technological change during = the last=20 century has been so striking and fast that it is easy to attribute = almost=20 everything to the present and nothing to the past. We no longer look to = the past=20 as people used to do, but live in an exaggerated appreciation for the = present.=20 This answer will therefore examine the monastic past, something that has = washed=20 up even to the shores of our modern world.

St. Athanasius the Great writes that:

"There are two forms and states of life. One is the = usual life=20 for mankind, married life; the other is the angelic and Apostolic life = of which=20 there is no higher, virginity or the monastic state."

Monasticism is not something alien to the Church, but = is life=20 according to the Gospel. Thus, it is not without reason that the = spiritual=20 writers have set forth an extremely exalted point of view of this way of = life.=20 As one of them noted, among the Orthodox Church's monks and nuns = throughout the=20 ages, the gifts of casting out demons, healing sicknesses, resurrecting = the=20 dead, and gifts of prophecy, are not exceptional. Moreover, the greatest = Fathers=20 and theologians of Orthodoxy have come from the ranks of monastics. For = these=20 reasons, the best way to penetrate Orthodox spirituality is to enter it = through=20 monasticism.

Monasticism had its origins in the Old Testament = period of the=20 Church, when God revealed to Moses the vow of the Nazarite =97 a vow of = celibacy=20 and the consecration of one's life to God (Numbers 6:2). Subsequently = the=20 prophets, from Elijah to John the Baptist, set examples of this vow.

The monastic way was later perfected in the life of = Christ.=20 According to the teachings of all the Holy Fathers and teachers of the = Church,=20 the first monastic community was that which Christ formed with His = Apostles. St.=20 Basil the Great gives this teaching when he states that "the image of = the common=20 monastic life is truly an imitation of the way of life of the Lord Jesus = Christ=20 with His disciples."

Likewise, the Church historian Filon notes that = "already in the=20 beginning of the Apostles' preaching, there were among Christians those = who were=20 distinguished by a special love of wisdom, that is, a yearning toward = higher=20 ascetic struggles and contemplation, which are the very constituents of = the=20 purely monastic life, and which a merely Christian life lived amidst the = tumults=20 and vanities of the world =97 although not in itself forbidden =97 is = not adequate=20 to satisfy." In the same regard, St. John Chrysostom writes:

In the beginning of Christianity, in the land of = Egypt there=20 appeared a wonderful army of Christ, leading a form of life natural only = to the=20 celestial powers; and it was made up not only of men, but also of women, = who no=20 less than the men led the contemplative life. As great ascetics they = entered=20 into spiritual warfare with the devil and the powers of darkness.

Having seen Christ's example, the holy disciple and = Evangelist=20 Mark, who established the Church in Egypt, founded the first ascetic = communities=20 that continued this way of life. These communities had the Old Testament = prophets as models, and they adhered to the principles set forth in Acts = 4:32.=20 These communities came to be known as monasteries, and their inhabitants = came to=20 be called monks, from the Greek word monos (single or alone), in=20 reference to their choice to be alone with God. From these monastic = communities=20 arose the great monastic saints, the Desert Fathers, of the = fourth-century=20 Egyptian Thebaid.

During the three hundred years of persecution of = Christians,=20 endless numbers of men, women and children underwent the cruelest forms = of=20 torture imaginable, being lacerated, burned, crucified, beheaded, = drowned,=20 thrown to lions in arenas, and having molten lead poured down their = throats, for=20 their Christian faith and love of God. Martyrdom had a central place in = the=20 spiritual outlook of early Christians, being considered the ultimate act = of=20 renunciation of the world and the highest confession of one's faith. All = Christians believed and lived in truth, and lived in readiness to be = killed.

Once freedom was granted to the Church by = Constantine, however,=20 the suffering of persecution and martyrdom as a means of Christian = perfection=20 was gone. Under the new conditions where many started coming to = Christianity out=20 of expediency, many Christians in their freedom and wealth became = worldly,=20 forgetting that the Christian life is undertaken to save one's soul, and = forgetting that this path entails suffering in this life in order to = obtain=20 peace in the next. This development resulted in secularism, something = that=20 proved an even greater danger for Christianity than the persecution of = the=20 Church, for with it, the ascetic way of living disappeared from the = cities.

In reaction to this secularization, the idea of = martyrdom took=20 other forms, such as a life of monasticism. At that time, there began to = appear=20 anchorites or hermits, people who fled society to enter into a voluntary = or=20 bloodless martyrdom in the desert =97 that is, to preserve the essence = of the=20 spiritual life and live a genuine life according to the Gospel. At first = they=20 left the world singly, and then in loosely-knit groups. In this way, = monasticism=20 emerged as a definite institution in the fourth century. As Metropolitan = Hierotheos of Nafpaktos goes on to explain, the Holy Fathers emphasize = that the=20 monastic life is the continuity of the Apostolic age and the life of the = early=20 Church. The Fathers, he states, taught that monastics are those who live = the=20 life of the Gospel, who experience repentance to its ultimate degree, = and who=20 try to observe the commandments of Christ unyieldingly.

One of the earliest records of a monk is that of St. = Anthony=20 the Great (+356). When he was a young man, his parents died and left = their=20 substantial wealth to him. Sorrowing over their death, he went into = church, and=20 there he heard the priest read from Scripture: "If thou will be perfect, = go and=20 sell that thou hast, and give it to the poor, and thou shalt have = treasure in=20 Heaven: and come and follow Me" (Mt 19:21). Upon hearing these words, = Anthony's=20 heart began to burn for Christ. He then went to distribute his = inheritance among=20 the poor, after which he departed to the Egyptian desert to be alone = with God.=20 There he lived a life of prayer, fasting and reading Holy Scripture, = living to=20 over a hundred years of age.

The ultimate aim and significance of St. Anthony's = life was not=20 to withdraw complacently unto himself, but to cleanse his heart of the = passions=20 and vices that thrive in the world. After this cleansing, he was able to = help=20 his fellow men by his counsel or through his miraculous prayer. St. = Anthony is=20 the typical hermit =97 one who saved his own soul, and also saved the = souls of=20 many of his fellow men at the same time.

After St. Anthony's repose, St. Athanasius the Great, = the=20 bishop of Alexandria (the same Athanasius who was responsible for the = New=20 Testament canon of Scriptures), recorded Anthony's life for the = inspiration of=20 others, eloquently presenting him as a model of ascetic perfection. As = St.=20 Athanasius writes:

How did this recluse in the wilderness become famous = in Spain=20 and Gaul, in Rome and Africa, were it not for God, Who knows His own = people=20 everywhere?... And although such people wish to live in seclusion, God = reveals=20 them and they cannot "hide their light under a bushel" (Mt 5: 15).

In bringing this story throughout the world, St. = Athanasius=20 changed the face of history with the life of St. Anthony, the illiterate = cave-dwelling monk and the founder of anchoritic monasticism. St. = Anthony's fame=20 spread not because he desired it (for he had purposely withdrawn into = the=20 wilderness), but because God wanted him to serve as a lamp to illumine = all.

Following St. Anthony's example, thousands of people = =97 men and=20 women alike =97 fearing that the lure of comfort and security would = divert them=20 from their search for unity with God, withdrew from the world which = entangles=20 the soul, in order to devote attention to the "one thing needful" (Lk = 10:42).=20 Abandoning all things that tied them to the world =97 riches, homes, = relatives,=20 friends and all earthly consolations, they took up the eremitical way of = life in=20 the wilderness areas. Like the walls of the catacombs before, the = wilderness=20 isolated them from the world and gave them the opportunity for a more=20 God-centered life. There, far from the temptations of the world and far = from the=20 eyes of men, these ascetic recluses concealed themselves in solitude in = the wide=20 expanse of desolate areas, in mountains and forests, in caves, cells and = tombs,=20 where they led a life of self-renunciation and deprivation, one spent in = prayer,=20 fasting, chastity and vigilance. In such a state, they became lifelong = martyrs=20 in spiritual warfare against the passions and against the demons. "Lo, I = have=20 fled afar off and have dwelt in the wilderness. I waited for God that = saveth me"=20 (Ps 54:8-9). Some of the hermits lived in such complete isolation that, = in the=20 case of St. Mark of Thrace, he lived for more than ninety years without = ever=20 seeing another human face.

Eremetical monasticism was established by St. Anthony = the=20 Great. According to this discipline, each monastic lived separately from = the=20 others in a hut or cave, where he prayed, fasted and labored under the = guidance=20 of a leader or elder called an abba, or father. During Anthony's = lifetime,=20 another form of monastic life began to develop =97 cenobitic = monasticism, where=20 the ascetics gathered into one community and were subject to one rule, = under the=20 leadership of an abbot or archimandrite. The founder of communal = monasticism is=20 St. Pachomius the Great.

Receiving and preserving the same outpouring of = spiritual gifts=20 which distinguished the first era of Christianity, monasticism spread = quickly=20 through Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Greece, Ethiopia and India, and to = Italy, Gaul,=20 Ireland, Bulgaria and Russia, and to the ends of the world. First a monk = would=20 settle in some uninhabited area, after which people would settle nearby. = In time=20 a village would grow, and cities and entire societies has their = beginnings in=20 the simple poverty of monks.

In Russia, just as in Byzantium before it, every = aspect of life=20 was centered around Christianity. However, there was still a need for = the much=20 deeper, God-centered life that only the desert can offer. As a result, = the thick=20 Russian forests became the desert where God-seekers could find the = solitude they=20 needed for the austere monastic life. Monasticism quickly spread and = greatly=20 thrived in Russia, but it met its Passion Friday on February 18, 1932, = when all=20 of Russian monasticism disappeared into the concentration camps. This = act took=20 place in the dead of one single night, and it was ignored by all and was = almost=20 unknown to the whole world. Soon after this so-called "holy night," the = United=20 States recognized the Soviet tyranny as the lawful government of = crucified holy=20 Russia.

Comparing the life of hermits to those living in the = world, St.=20 John of Kronstadt writes that the former are worthy of a thousand = crowns. He=20 continues:

They, out of love for God, forsook the world and all = that is in=20 the world; they went away into the desert, uninhabited places, and = there, shut=20 up in their cells, they spent all their life in thinking of God, in = prayer, in=20 renouncing their own will, in fasting, watching, laboring, and in doing = great=20 deeds for the love of God, enduring during their whole life the assaults = of the=20 opposing forces [the demons, who were] endeavoring by every means to = shake their=20 faith and trust in God, and especially their love for Him. To fight, for = the=20 love of God, against our own flesh and the devil =97 that crafty, mighty = and evil=20 enemy =97 not for some hours, days and months, but for many years, = sometimes sixty=20 or seventy =97 is not this worthy of crowns? And what, in comparison = with these=20 ascetics, or Holy Fathers, are men living in the world, falling so often = into=20 sin even without being assaulted, and defeated by their own flesh = without even=20 being attacked? What in comparison to holy ascetics are worldly men, = living in=20 accordance with their own will, in luxury, in pleasures of every kind,=20 gorgeously appareled and living delicately (Lk 7:25), given over to = pride,=20 ambition, envy, hatred, avarice, irritability, wrath, revenge, = amusements,=20 fornication, drunkenness =97 to all possible vices, although not all in = the same=20 person? They are caught alive, without any resistance, in the power of = the=20 devil, and therefore he does not attack them, but leaves them long = entangled in=20 the nets in the peace of self-forgetfulness that precede death [My = Life in=20 Christ].

Orthodox monasticism is called the angelic life. As = an old=20 adage from St. John of the Ladder has it: "Christ, the light of angels; = angels,=20 the light of monastics; monastics, the light of the laity." Likewise, = Scripture=20 teaches that "they which shall be accounted worthy to obtain... the = resurrection=20 from the dead, neither marry, nor are given in marriage... for they are = equal=20 unto the angels" (Lk 20:35-36, cf. Mt 22:30, Mk 12:25). When the = disciples said=20 to the Master, "If the case of a man be so with his wife, it is good not = to=20 marry," Christ in reply instructed:

All men cannot receive this saying, save they to whom = it is=20 given. For... there be eunuchs which have made themselves eunuchs for = the=20 Kingdom of Heaven's sake; he that is able to receive it, let him receive = it=20 (Mt. 19:12).

A monk explains that Christ refers to monastics as = eunuchs for=20 the Kingdom not only because of their celibacy, but more importantly to=20 emphasize that like the eunuchs of His day, who were influential royal=20 officials, monastics have a special closeness to God. They are "before = the=20 throne of God and serve Him day and night in His temple" (Rev. = 7:15).

A Russian priest additionally explains that the = arduous process=20 of monastic self-denial and renunciation in and of itself is not the = goal, but=20 that it is the most effective means of attaining the highest spiritual = life. The=20 aim of monasticism is human transformation (the attainment of moral and=20 spiritual strength) for the salvation of one's soul. This human = transformation=20 is the process of theosis (divinization), or a participation of man in = the=20 divine energies of God. This union with God is possible through the = conquest of=20 the passions, for Christ states that those who see Him are the pure of = heart. As=20 St. Gregory Palamas instructs, "Indeed, only this is impossible to God, = to enter=20 into union with a man before he has been cleansed."

As an American nun notes of this transformation, many = monastic=20 saints regained the likeness of Adam in Paradise, who was rightful lord = over the=20 animals and earthly elements. Wild animals, including fierce lions and = bears,=20 and timid birds, were gentle and unafraid in the presence of these men = and=20 women, and the cruel cold of the Siberian winters could not harm them. = Dwelling=20 in the antechambers of Heaven as they did, these saints barely touched = the=20 prosaic aspects of pragmatic human affairs.

Regarding monasticism=92s ultimate goal, the = salvation of one's=20 soul, the voices of all the Holy Fathers are summed up by Metropolitan = Philaret=20 (Voznesensky), former First Hierarch of the Russian Church in Exile, = himself a=20 monastic of high spiritual caliber and one whose remains did not = decompose after=20 his repose. The metropolitan wrote that "according to the definition of = the=20 Fathers, the monastic life is per se the direct road to the Kingdom of=20 Heaven."

Orthodox monasticism continues today, particularly in = the=20 countries of Eastern Europe, where monasteries dot the countryside with=20 noticeable frequency. Orthodox monasticism will continue to exist until = the=20 consummation of the ages.

5. What has been the chief center of Orthodox=20 monasticism since the tenth century?

Mount Athos, also known as the Holy Mountain, became = the major=20 ascetic center of the Byzantine Empire. Preserving the highest ideals of = Christian ascetic life as expounded by the Holy Fathers, this monastic = community=20 played a decisive role in the ecclesiastical affairs of the late = Byzantine=20 period, and especially during the hesychast controversy of the = fourteenth=20 century. A rocky, mountainous peninsula in northern Greece, it juts into = the=20 Aegean Sea and culminates at its tip in a peak 6,670 feet in elevation. = The=20 peninsula consists entirely of monastic settlements, some twenty of = them, and a=20 large number of smaller houses and hermits' cells. To this day on Mount = Athos,=20 there are ascetics who keep vigil in prayer all night, who live in caves = in=20 extreme poverty and totally unseen by men, and those who dwell in the = open air=20 with just one garment and no shoes.

The textbook states that Mount Athos has experienced = a new=20 "springtime," or a new lease on life, because of the large number of = young and=20 well-educated monks it has gained in recent decades. However, not all is = in=20 order there. Up until 1992, there was a group of monks of the Russian = Church in=20 Exile who would not commemorate the Ecumenical Patriarch because of his=20 faith-compromising ecumenism. In May of that year, those monks were = forcibly and=20 illegally expelled from Mount Athos.

Not long before their expulsion, a fire raged out of = control=20 for several days. Despite their best efforts, monks and firefighters = were unable=20 to control it, and litanies and supplications were of no avail either as = they=20 had been in the past under similar circumstances. Although there was = rain=20 everywhere on the peninsula at the time, there was none over the fire=20 itself.

Among the older monks were those who saw the fire as = a=20 forewarning of worse calamities in the future. Some viewed the fire as=20 chastisement for the capitulation of certain Athonite Fathers to the = ecumenical=20 policies of Patriarch Bartholomew I, a large number of whom attended his = enthronement as Ecumenical Patriarch in 1991.

In recent times, the abbots of the major monasteries = on Mount=20 Athos have largely capitulated to the threats of Constantinople against = any=20 protests directed at that Patriarchate's betrayal of Orthodoxy through = the=20 heresy of ecumenism. Mount Athos is therefore experiencing anything but = a=20 "springtime."

6. Are there orders in Orthodox=20 monasticism?

Orders do not exist in Orthodox monasticism. Orders = are a=20 particular development within the Roman Catholic Church, which has = preserved the=20 institution of monastic life but has strayed far from the original = spirit of=20 primitive monasticism. As orders in the West came to assume a vast = sociological=20 range of functions, Catholic monastics became functionaries who today, = often in=20 street clothes, typically act as advocates of social justice and = political=20 reform. As Catholic monasticism was transferred from the quiet of the = wilderness=20 to the tumult of the city, it became worldly, and Catholic monks and = nuns=20 thereby became directed to social activity and worldly things, rather = than to=20 prayer and the internal life, to ascesis and inner purification.

Nothing of the sort took place in the East, where = monastics, in=20 the manner of primitive monasticism, dedicate themselves entirely to the = work of=20 human transformation. Orthodox monastics labor to cleanse the mind and = body=20 through the conquest of the passions, even as an angel instructed St. = Anthony=20 the Great to remain in the desert to struggle against himself, and = against=20 languor and the passions. This struggle is undertaken in order to be = united to=20 God, for as was noted above, St. Gregory Palamas explained that only one = thing=20 is impossible to God: to enter into union with a man before he has been=20 cleansed.

Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos gives further = development=20 of the difference between monasticism in the West and East. Western = monasticism,=20 he notes, exhausts itself in societal work and external worship, which = is=20 intellectual worship. He states that there are isolated cases of Western = monastics who live an interior life, although even they cannot be freed = from a=20 barren ethicology. He goes on to note that in Orthodox monasticism, on = the other=20 hand, a perfect therapeutic treatment exists, consisting of = purification,=20 illumination and divinization. The metropolitan also notes that Western=20 monasticism was created in an effort to regenerate the Church. In = Orthodoxy,=20 however, monastics are not struggling to revive the Church or to save = it, for it=20 is not the Church they need to save. Instead, they struggle to be healed = living=20 within the Church, and they seek their own salvation within the Church, = from=20 Christ, in His Holy Mysteries. Thus, Orthodox monasteries function as = hospitals=20 which cure people and lead them to life before the fall.

Some people condemn Orthodox monasticism because of = its=20 unworldliness and its emphasis on the interior life, and they put the = outer life=20 and its activities first. However, it is sufficient to recall that = Christ did=20 not bless the activist Martha, who was "burdened about much serving." = Instead,=20 He blessed the quiet Mary, who sat at His feet to hear the words of = eternal life=20 (Lk 10:38-42). Also, Christ specifically blesses those who engage in = ascetic=20 labor, saying that those who see Him are the pure of heart (Mt 5:8).

7. What is an elder and what does he = do?

The Apostle Paul enumerates three ministries in the = Church that=20 are independent of the Church hierarchy: Apostles, prophets and = teachers. (These=20 ministries may be connected to the rank of bishop or priest, but not = necessarily=20 so). An elder was one who had received the second of these gifts of the = Holy=20 Spirit =97 that of the prophetic ministry (cf. Eph 4:11, 1 Cor 12:28). = This gift=20 was bestowed as a special gift of grace, and it was given to those = carriers of=20 God's grace and otherworldly wisdom whose rare and God-given spiritual=20 discernment and insight enabled them to serve as guides to others.

So high a calling as the prophetic ministry required = a great=20 personal sanctity, purity of heart, and uninterrupted abiding in God. = Sanctity=20 of life was definitely a requirement of the prophets in the time of the = first=20 Christians. As is written in one of the oldest works of Christian=20 literature:

He must have the manner of the Lord. From his manner = may be=20 distinguished the false prophet from the [true] prophet [The = Didache=20 (The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles by the Twelve = Apostles)].

Many saints were given the grace of prophecy, = including=20 Fools-for-Christ's-Sake (Yurodivi) and holy eldresses, and even = the=20 mentally unstable. However, as Professor Smirnov notes in his doctrinal=20 dissertation The Spiritual Fathers in the Ancient Eastern Church, = "The=20 charismatic phenomena of the first centuries of Christianity repeated = themselves=20 in ancient monasticism: that the elders were bearers of these charisms = =97 the=20 special gifts of the Holy Spirit, given to man directly by God, = according to=20 one's personal worthiness."

Eldership, being a direct continuation of the = prophetic=20 ministry, appeared under this name and in this form only in the fourth = century,=20 when monasticism arose as a guiding principle. From that time on, the = gift most=20 commonly manifested itself as monastic eldership.

The father of monasticism himself, St. Anthony the = Great, was=20 the earliest and most famous of the elders. In a pattern common to later = elders,=20 he withdrew from the world and spent the first part of his life (from = eighteen=20 to thirty-five) living as a desert anchorite in strict solitude and = ascetic=20 endeavors. In time, a group of disciples gathered about him, and later = still, he=20 had a circle of people who came from far and wide to seek his advice. So = great=20 did his fame for helping others become that he was described by his = biographer=20 St. Athanasius as a physician to all Egypt. St. Anthony had many = successors=20 through the centuries, most of whom followed his pattern of withdrawing = from the=20 world to return to it with gifts of discernment for the benefit of their = fellow=20 men.

Angels are a light for monks, it was noted, and the = monastic=20 life is a light for all humanity. However, the heights of Christianity, = the best=20 expression of monasticism, is eldership. This ministry consisted in=20 edification, exhortation and comfort (1 Cor. 14:3). As St. = Barsanuphius, an elder from the famous Optina Hermitage, explained, the = Lord=20 spontaneously reveals to elders the past, present and future of people. = Thus, in=20 addition to physical eyes, elders have spiritual eyes before which the = human=20 soul is revealed, and nothing is hidden from them. This gift, the = ability to see=20 the human soul, gives an elder the opportunity to raise the fallen, = direct=20 people from a false path to a true one, heal diseases of soul and body, = drive=20 out demons, and act as direct transmitters of God's will for all who = came to=20 them. In the lofty spiritual gaze of elders, the boundaries of space and = time=20 were set aside, and they saw the spiritual meaning of present and future = events,=20 the latter of which they were able to foretell.

Archpriest Sergei Lebedev speaks of the ability of = elders and=20 eldresses to foretell the future in the following way:

It is not clear to many Christians how these pious = people,=20 elders and eldresses, prophecy the future just as it will happen. Many = confuse=20 [their gift] with a kind of fortune-telling because of their simplicity, = spiritual immaturity, heedlessness and lack of faith. Such people = sometimes=20 speak thus about these strugglers for God: "Here he guessed and it came = out as=20 he said it would." Herein is revealed great thoughtlessness and even=20 sinful-ness. Fortune-telling is forbidden in the Old Testament. = Fortune-tellers=20 have the devil and his angels for their accomplices. They are totally = sinful and=20 Christians should not turn to them under any circumstances. If a = Christian turns=20 to a fortune-teller, he shows himself a traitor to Christ and accepts = the=20 devil's help. [The gift of prophecy] has the great blessing of God as = its=20 foundation, and it is a great gift given only to people of the highest = spiritual=20 labors who have a pure heart. They acquire inner light as a gift from = the Lord=20 [Consoler of Suffering Hearts: Eldress Rachel, Visionary of = Russia, p.=20 10].

Hieromonk Seraphim Rose explains that elders had = their=20 exceptional abilities as they are an image of Adam in his unfallen = state. When=20 Adam named the animals that came before him in Paradise, he instantly = gave=20 whatever name God placed in his mind. In the same way, when an elder = sees=20 someone for the first time, he tells the person's name, tells the = person's sin,=20 and tells him what he must do to save his soul. The elder's mind gives = this=20 startling information because he is in direct contact with God, Who = gives him=20 this ability. As Iulia De Beausobre goes on to note, because elders had = this=20 ability, they were sought out in the solitudes of many lands by people = eager to=20 find a teacher capable of bringing order to their confusion, and capable = of=20 kindling the light of hope in the darkness of their despair.

Hieroconfessor Barnabas (Belyaev), Bishop of = Pechersky, himself=20 an elder, left the following description of the institution of eldership = and how=20 it manifested itself in Russia:

Elders in Russian ecclesiastical consciousness are = ascetics who=20 have passed through a long probation and have come to know spiritual = warfare=20 from experience, and who by many exploits have acquired the gift of = discernment,=20 and who, finally, are capable by prayer of attaining to the will of God = for man.=20 That is, to a greater or lesser extent they have received the gift of... = giving=20 spiritual direction to those who come to them.

The influence of eldership spread far beyond = monasteries. In=20 Russia, elders were spiritual guides for thousands of people who flocked = to be=20 guided by these holy men =97 Tsars, princes, philosophers, writers such = as Gogol=20 and Dostoyevsky, and ordinary people from all walks of life. Those who = rendered=20 themselves to the guidance of an elder experienced a special feeling of = joy and=20 freedom in God, for contact with God is always combined with a feeling = of=20 indescribable peace in the soul.

Well-known holy men from among the Russian elders = were Saints=20 Seraphim of Sarov and John of Kronstadt. Eldership flowered especially = at the=20 Optina Hermitage, which produced no less than twelve elders, all of whom = have=20 been glorified by saints by the Russian Church in Exile. With the Optina = elders,=20 as with others, the Lord bestowed on them the gift of understanding the = state of=20 soul of people who came to them, plus miracle-working, the ability to = drive out=20 demons, and the ability to heal sicknesses.

The prophetic ministry flourished when the spiritual = life in=20 the Church was high, and it declined in decadent periods. In these=20 pre-apocalyptic times, when the love of many has grown cold and = spiritual=20 impoverishment prevails, the grace of eldership has grown exceedingly = scarce. It=20 is not known to the writer if any elders are still alive today. However, = if any=20 still do exist, they choose to conceal themselves from the gaze of = others rather=20 than seek the vainglory that comes from the human praise they would = receive from=20 putting on display the treasure they have obtained. Regarding the = present=20 scarcity of elders, Archpriest Alexey Young writes:

In this country, at least, there are no true = elders=20 today whose voice can be the voice of Heaven for a disciple or spiritual = child.=20 To think otherwise is very dangerous: whole groups have been led into = schism and=20 heresy because they believed their leader to be an unerring "elder." = ["Cults=20 Within and Without," Orthodox America, vol. 15, no. 7, 1996, p. = 11].

Also regarding the disappearance of elders in these = times, a=20 new martyr of the Communist yoke, Hieromartyr Damascene, Bishop of = Glokov,=20 stated:

Perhaps the time has come when the Lord does not wish = that the=20 Church should stand as an intermediary between Himself and believers, = but that=20 everyone is called to stand directly before the Lord and himself answer, = as it=20 was with the forefathers [Episkopi-Ispovedniki, San Francisco, = 1971, p.=20 92].

8. What is the significance of the Byzantine=20 Empire?

Byzantium was a Christian society dedicated to Christ = and His=20 Holy Church, and it produced a great number of saints from every level = of=20 society. Moreover, its Christianization of the Balkans and the = Slavo-Varangian=20 state of Rus' stand as supreme missionary achievements in the spreading = of the=20 true faith.

Sir Dimitry Obolensky, professor emeritus of Russian = and Balkan=20 history at Oxford University, explains in his many books that among the = events=20 that shaped the history of Europe, a notable one is the influence = exerted by=20 Byzantium on the society and culture of Eastern Europe. Through the = relations=20 established between the Eastern Roman Empire and the people of the = extensive=20 territories to the north of the Black Sea and in the Balkan Peninsula, = entire=20 nations accepted Orthodox Christianity and adopted many features of = Byzantine=20 civilization =97 its law, literature and art. As a result, these nations = were able=20 to share in, and eventually contribute to, a common cultural tradition = =97 the=20 Byzantine heritage, whose principal beneficiaries were the Greeks and = Slavs.

Although Byzantium was inspired by the great vision = of=20 establishing here on earth a living icon of God's government in Heaven, = it was=20 still a human society, one full of human weaknesses. The textbook = describes=20 those well known weaknesses =97 the duplicity, violence and cruelty. It=20 additionally mentions the empire's falling into the error of identifying = the=20 earthly kingdom with the Kingdom of God, and the Greek people with God's = people.=20 There can be no doubt that Byzantium fell far short of the high ideal = that it=20 itself set. Although not mentioned in the textbook but explained in the=20 prefatory notes, those failures were the result of human nature, for = Byzantium=20 was populated with poor, fallen and sinful people like ourselves.

The prefatory notes to the course also explain that = the purpose=20 of the Byzantine Empire was to provide a calm, stable and relatively = peaceful=20 framework on earth in which each person might strive, in the Holy = Church, for=20 the salvation of his soul. As long as there was a genuine striving for = the=20 Christian ideal, the empire continued to exist, no matter how short it = fell of=20 the mark. On the other hand, the notes mention, when that striving = ceased, the=20 empire was overrun by its enemies.

The same fundamental law is seen all throughout Old = and New=20 Testament history =97 sc., that the cyclical rise and fall of people and = nations=20 is connected with their fluctuating relationship with God. This = principle began=20 with Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden.

The commandment not to eat from the one tree was = given so that=20 through its fulfillment man could express his freely-willed striving = toward God=20 and love for Him. Speaking of this matter, the holy martyr Eustratius, = who was=20 killed during the reign of the emperors Diocletian and Maximian, spoke = the=20 following words to his tormentors:

The Lord... forbade [Adam] to touch the fruit of one = tree to=20 instill in him obedience. In giving this command, God's intention was to = teach=20 man submission to the divine ordinances and to ignore the enticements of = the=20 devil, who envied the honor in which man was held. If he kept the = commandment,=20 man would live forever, immortal and incorrupt; however, if he = transgressed it,=20 he would not be permitted to remain in Paradise, but would be expelled = and come=20 under the domination of death [St. Demetrius of Rostov, The Great = Collection=20 of the Lives of the Saints, vol. 4, p. 254].

After the first human sin, God came to Adam not to = condemn him=20 or banish him from Paradise, but to bring him to his senses, confess his = sin,=20 and repent. In His love for mankind, and in His complete lack of = ill=20 will, God could have immediately subjected Adam and Eve to punishment, = but as=20 St. John Chrysostom writes, "He is long-suffering, delays, asks and = listens for=20 the answer, and again asks, as if evoking the guilty one to justify = himself in=20 order that when the matter has been revealed, He might show him His love = for=20 mankind even after such a transgression [Homilies on Genesis, p.=20 140].

Thus it cannot be stated that Adam and Eve sinned and = then were=20 condemned. Instead, they were given a chance to repent, although Adam = blamed=20 Eve, and Eve blamed the serpent. When it was finally revealed that they = had=20 neither repentance nor any true justification, only then were they = condemned.=20 St. Ephraim the Syrian states that had Adam and Eve repented, then, = "even though=20 they would not have restored to themselves what they had before the=20 transgression of the commandment, at least they would have been = delivered from=20 the curses that were uttered to the earth and themselves" [Commentary on = Genesis, p. 329]. Rassaphore Nun Maria goes on to add that "God = therefore saw=20 that if [Adam and Eve] remained in the paradise of delight where they = received=20 all good things without pain or toil, they would never come to a proper=20 realization of their deed, but would on the contrary grow completely and = irreversibly hardened like the fallen angels." That is, the human race = would=20 turn into another race of demons.

Even the act of condemnation itself was an act of = mercy, for=20 once being given over to illness and sufferings, man had these = misfortunes=20 acting on him like a bridle. As St. Cyril of Alexandria explains, these = things=20 gave man the opportunity to heal in himself the disease which came upon = him in=20 the midst of blessedness. Moreover, the same Father states that:

By death, the Giver of the Law stopped the spread of = sin, and=20 in the very chastisement reveals His love for mankind. Inasmuch as He, = in giving=20 the commandment, joined death to the transgression of it, and inasmuch = as the=20 criminal thus fell under the chastisement, so He arranged that the = chastisement=20 itself might serve for salvation. For death dissolves this animal nature = of ours=20 and thus, on the one hand, stops the activity of evil, and on the other = delivers=20 a man from illnesses, frees him from labors, puts an end to his sorrows = and=20 cares, and stops his bodily sufferings. With such a love for mankind has = the=20 Judge mixed the chastisement [Quoted in Fr. Seraphim Rose, Genesis, = Creation=20 and Early Man, p. 210].

The Holy Fathers state that death was not only a = punishment,=20 but that it was something good. From Hieromonk Seraphim Rose we learn = that:

It was also a good, because once man fell, if he were = to still=20 be immortal, there would be no way out for him. Imagine being in a state = of=20 being unable to redeem yourself, unable to get to Paradise, and then = living and=20 living and living, with no hope of getting out of this state. Death puts = and end=20 to sin. The fact that we are afraid of death already wakes us up to = begin to=20 struggle. Even if we forget about Paradise, we will be afraid of death = and begin=20 to struggle, to overcome our fallen nature [Ibid].

Fr. Damascene Christensen comments further on the = meaning of=20 suffering. He states that:

Before the fall, there was no suffering in the world; = there was=20 only spiritual pleasure, only joy. After the fall, God allowed suffering = to=20 enter the world not as a chastisement =97 for He has no need to see = people=20 punished =97 but out of love. If God would not have allowed suffering, = there would=20 have been nothing to check the spread of evil in the world. Man would = get=20 further and further entrenched in love of himself, seeking sensual = pleasure for=20 himself, growing in massive pride just like the devil, and we would all = be like=20 demons. God allowed suffering because, if it is met in the right way, it = can=20 lead to redemption, it can purify us. Suffering reminds us that we're = moving=20 away from our original destination and from the knowledge of who we = are.

If we're involved in some sin =97 whether it's a = sensual pleasure=20 or a resentment against someone =97 we can feel a certain exhilaration = from it,=20 which makes us feel better and not so guilty. But eventually, through = suffering,=20 we're led back to the awareness that something is deeply wrong. Without=20 suffering, there's no way we could find that out; we'd be completely=20 blinded.

God cherishes freedom. In order to love Him and each = other, we=20 must have freedom to love or not love. There is no love without freedom. = That's=20 why God has created us free like He is; that's why He allows us to = ravage the=20 earth and inflict suffering on our fellow human beings. But in the midst = of this=20 suffering He wants to deliver any who call upon Him and wish to turn = away from=20 their fallenness, to return to their true designation. He accomplishes = this=20 return without meddling with man's freedom. He lets man make a mess of = things=20 and then in His omnipotence He uses this very mess to help man return to = Him.=20 Only God can do that. The devil, even while seeming to gain victory over = a man's=20 soul, often loses in this very victory, for God can turn it around and = use the=20 mess the devil created to bring the soul to Him through suffering = [Quoted in Fr.=20 Paisius Altschul, An Unbroken Circle: Linking Ancient African = Christianity to=20 the African-American Experience, p. 91].

In the writings of St. Nikolai Velimirovich, one = frequently=20 encounters the theme of "corrective" or redemptive suffering. Moreover, = he=20 frequently writes about it in the context of chastisement that God sends = at the=20 hands of unbelievers. Referring to the Babylonian captivity of the = Hebrews, the=20 bishop asks how it is that God calls Nebuchadnezzar, a pagan and = idolatrous=20 king, My servant (Jer 25:9)? Because, the bishop explains:

... when he to whom God has given knowledge of = Himself and His=20 laws turns knowledge to ignorance: law to lawlessness, then God takes as = His=20 servant him who does not know Him, to punish the apostate. For an = apostate from=20 God is worse than a pagan.... And so, when the Christian people in the = Balkans=20 turned back from God and God's law, God took the Turks as His servants, = to=20 punish those in apostasy and bring them to their senses by this = punishment=20 [Prologue from Ochrid].

It is only in this light that the sufferings of the = Orthodox=20 under the Turks can be seen, contrary to the papacy's maintaining that = this=20 chastisement was sent to the Orthodox for their sin of refusing to = submit to the=20 "supremacy" of the pope.

Still, the question remains =97 how is it that = hardship and=20 defeat so often fall upon Orthodox Christians, while unbelievers are = left to=20 prosper? Where is God's justice? The same St. Nikolai penned this answer = from=20 his place of imprisonment in the infamous Dachau concentration camp = during World=20 War II:

When Abraham asked God whether He would destroy the = sinful city=20 of Sodom if ten righteous men were found in it, God answered that He = would not=20 destroy it, but that He would save the whole city for the sake of these = ten=20 righteous men. You say there were more than ten righteous amongst the = Serbian=20 people, so why did God not spare us? That is the word of a tempter. As = if you do=20 not know that Sodom was a pagan city, that it did not know one God, as = the=20 Israelite people did; and that it was not baptized in the name of the = Holy=20 Trinity, nor did it partake of the Holy Body and Blood of Christ as the = Serbian=20 nation did. The difference is like that between Heaven and earth. That = is why He=20 Who judges in righteousness wanted to save Sodom because of ten = righteous=20 people, but would not save Israel on account of ten thousand, nor the = Serbs for=20 the sake of hundreds of thousands of righteous souls. The Sodomites did = not know=20 the one true God. The Jews knew one true God through the prophets and = through=20 many miracles. The Serbs, however, knew God, revealed to the world in = the Person=20 of the Lord Jesus Christ. Punishment is measured according to the scale = of=20 knowledge of God [Through a Prison Window].

In sacred history, God came to the transgressor Cain = to give=20 him a chance to repent after he slew his brother Abel (Gen = 4:6-7). St.=20 Ephraim the Syrian explains that God appears to Cain without anger so = that the=20 prayer pronounced by Cain's lips might wash away the sin of murder = performed by=20 his hands. However, if he does not repent, a heavy punishment will be = assigned=20 to him such as his crime deserves. Finally, although Cain did come to = admit his=20 guilt, it was too late, and his confession was more an admission of fact = than it=20 was an indication of repentance. Cain regretted his sin, but he did not = repent=20 of it (a common state among people to this day). Consequently, Cain was=20 subjected to the curse: "Thou art cursed from the earth." Here again, = God shows=20 first His concern that the guilty should repent, and then He shows His = mercy=20 even when there is not repentance.

The same thing happened with the Hebrews. For a long = time God=20 endured their sins and awaited their repentance. Finally, when they did = not=20 reform themselves, they went into bondage to the Assyrians and = Babylonians as a=20 direct consequence of their long-standing idolatry and pursing heathen=20 practices, and because of their disobeying the Law and ignoring the = prophets.=20 The historical books of the Old Testament, as well as the five = nomothetic books=20 of Moses, propound the close relationship between the piety of the = people and=20 their prosperity. In other words, they show that national disasters are = always=20 brought on by apostasy from the faith and moral decline. As Abba = Dorotheos of=20 Gaza (sixth century) states:

Everything that happens, happens with God's = permission or=20 approval, as it says in the Prophet, "I, the Lord, make the light and = create=20 darkness" (Isaiah 14:7), and again, "There is no evil in the city which = the Lord=20 did not make" (Amos 3:6). He speaks of evil here in the sense of the=20 consequences of evil and the troubles that are brought upon us for = correction=20 because of the evil we do, such evils as famine, earthquakes, droughts, = diseases=20 and war. All this happens to us, not according to God's pleasure, but by = His=20 permission, with His permission they come upon us for our profit.

On the other hand, if people repent, "if My people = which are=20 called by My name shall humble themselves, and pray and seek My face, = and turn=20 from their wicked way; then will I hear from Heaven, and will forgive = their sin,=20 and will heal their land" (2 Chron 7:14).

Further on in sacred history, it is shown that when = the Prophet=20 Jonah, and later the Prophet Nahum, prophesied the destruction of = Nineveh in=20 Assyria by fire and water, the Ninevites repented for a short period of = time.=20 Then, seeing that Jonah's prediction did not come to pass, the people = returned=20 to their evil ways, thereby stirring up the wrath of the long-suffering = God. As=20 a result, there was a great earthquake, and part of Nineveh was flooded = by=20 waters from a nearby lake. The remainder of the city, the part that = stood upon a=20 hill, was consumed by a fire that spread from the surrounding = wilderness. Thus=20 did God in His righteous judgment punish the sinful people and fulfill = Nahum's=20 prophecy.

The same principle is seen throughout the history of = mankind:=20 God chastises only after giving people abundant opportunity to repent = and change=20 their ways. This lesson is seen in Serbia in 1389, in Constantinople in = 1453,=20 and subsequently throughout the Balkan Peninsula as many nations fell to = the=20 Moslem Turks. More recently, it was repeated in 1917, when the scourge = of=20 atheistic Communism came upon Russia as a result of its capitulation to = Western=20 liberalism in the nineteenth century =97 that is, when it was overcome = by the=20 spirit of materialism and apostasy, and it took place again as Communism = came to=20 dominate the various nations of Eastern Europe in the bloody century = that just=20 ended. The lesson in each instance is that there are terrible = consequences when=20 a nation turns away from God to the idolatrous worship of its own ideas = and=20 passions.

Byzantium was overcome by the same spirit of = materialism and=20 apostasy from the true faith, something that clearly manifested itself = at the=20 Council of Florence in 1439. After its betrayal of Orthodoxy at that = council, it=20 was handed over to its downfall at the hands of the Turks in 1453. After = its=20 downfall, Orthodoxy continued to endure martyrdom and persecution from = the=20 world, this time from the Moslems. As in the case under the first great=20 persecution against the Church, suffering under the Moslems kept the = Church pure=20 by not allowing for lukewarmness of faith. In such a state, many saints=20 continued to appear there, thus testifying that the Church is not bound = to=20 Byzantium, or to any other nation or system of this earth. The rise and = fall of=20 nations or systems is not the concern of the Church; the Church's = concern is the=20 rise and fall of the human soul. As Blessed Augustine expressed this = idea in=20 The City of God, the Church does not exist for empires or = governments,=20 but for salvation and the Kingdom of God.

 

6. The Great = Schism.

1. From the end of the third century on, what was the = state of=20 political unity in the Roman Empire?

Political unity was in a state of decline. Although = still one=20 in theory, the empire was usually divided into an Eastern and Western = sphere,=20 each having its own emperor. This separation was further hastened by=20 Constantine=92s founding a second imperial city in the East.

2. What events began to occur at the start of = the fifth=20 century which would finally sever the unity of the empire?

The barbarian invasions took place. Following them = and the=20 carving up of most of the West among barbarian chieftains, the Greek = East and=20 Latin West were driven further apart, and political unity was never = again=20 restored on a permanent basis. For all the Christians of the period, and = for=20 Europe's heathen barbarians as well, the Christian Emperor of the East = stood out=20 as the world's supreme ruler, and Constantinople as the world's most = preeminent=20 and fabulous city. The East during this time never forgot the ideals of = Rome=20 under Augustus and Trajan, and it still saw the empire as in theory = universal.=20 The Emperor Justinian attempted to bridge the gulf between this theory = and=20 actual fact by his campaigns to gain back the Western part of the empire = from=20 the barbarian invaders, yet in spite of his bold and tenacious efforts = to do so,=20 he ended in failure. After Justinian, no succeeding emperor made any = serious=20 attempts to bridge the gulf between the theory and fact that the empire = was=20 universal.

3. This severance was carried a state further = by=20 what?

During the rise of Islam, the Mediterranean Sea, from = the=20 Pyrenees and Spain, through north Africa, Arabia, Syria and the East, = passed=20 largely into the control of the Arabs. This development made contacts = between=20 the East and West increasingly difficult.

4. What action did the Roman pope take in 800 = that would=20 result in political conflict in the Roman world?

In an action that was to become the greatest source = of=20 political and cultural alienation between the East and West, the pope = crowned=20 the king of the Franks, Charlemagne, as emperor in 800. The Eastern = Empire, in=20 its adhering to the principle of imperial unity, could only regard = Charlemagne=20 as an intruder and the pope's coronation of him as an act of schism = within the=20 empire. Even many of Charlemagne's contemporaries in the West saw him as = a=20 usurper, for the legitimate Roman Empire in Constantinople had not = ceased to=20 exist, nor had it ever given up its claim to rule the entire Christian = world.=20 The Eastern emperor therefore refused the political recognition that = Charlemagne=20 sought from him. Charlemagne, in his turn, sought to establish his own=20 legitimacy by trying to ruin the legitimacy of Constantinople's claim to = universal jurisdiction by accusing the East of heresy: he charged the = East with=20 falling into idolatry because of its veneration of icons. He further = accused the=20 East of dropping the word filioque (Latin for and from the = Son)=20 from the Nicene Creed, even though the word was a Western innovation and = never=20 was a part of the Creed as it was formed by the First and Second = Ecumenical=20 Councils.

From the outset, there was a marked antipathy towards = things=20 Greek in the court of the new, so-called Holy Roman Empire. The = hostility=20 and defiance of the new empire towards Constantinople soon extended = beyond the=20 political field and into the cultural realm: literati in Charlemagne's = court=20 sought to create a new Christian civilization not patterned after = Byzantium.=20 (Even the term Byzantine was given first by the Franks in a = derisive=20 sense and with the idea of regarding themselves as the successors of the = Romans). The Byzantines, for their part, dismissed all Franks as = barbarians and=20 refused to take Western learning seriously. The schism between the two=20 civilizations had thus become firmly fixed.

5. What problems of language made unity = between Rome and=20 Constantinople more difficult?

By the year 450, very few people in Western Europe = could read=20 Greek, the language of the Byzantines. Similarly, after 600, very few = Byzantines=20 could read Latin, the language of the Romans (even though Byzantium = still=20 referred to itself as the Roman Empire). If Latins and Greeks wanted to = read=20 each other's works, they could do so only in translation, although = usually they=20 did not do even that. Consequently, with their no longer drawing upon = the same=20 sources or reading the same books, East and West drifted further = apart.

6. It is interesting to note that Russia = became the=20 Third Rome at the time Byzantium was obliterated by the Turks. Russia = was cut=20 off from close interaction with the Greeks, there was a considerable = language=20 barrier, and both nations embarked upon completely separate political = and=20 cultural destinies. These events were similar to what happened between = Rome and=20 Constantinople, yet in the case of Russia and Greece, there was no = schism, no=20 severance from the Church. Can you suggest the reason?

Political, historical, cultural, linguistic and = geographic=20 diversity does not affect the oneness of the Apostolic Church. The = Church is=20 always one and the same, regardless of the human environment in which it = is=20 situated, be it Russia, Greece, China, Japan, or sub-Saharan Africa.

Russia did not commit Rome's mistake of holding = itself above=20 the ancient Councils and fashioning unto itself a new theology without = any=20 reference to the Councils or Sacred Apostolic Tradition. The Russian = Church was=20 obedient to the Councils and the conscience of the Church expressed in = them, and=20 as a result, the Russian Church never cut itself off from the True = Universal=20 Church, or from Christ, its Head, as the Latin Church did. Ever since it = received Christianity, the Russian nation has always been a God-bearing = nation,=20 and the faith of Christ was always preserved in it.

With regard to Russia's being the Third Rome, the = first Rome=20 had fallen to the barbarians, and it subsequently lapsed into heresy and = departed from the Apostolic Church. The Second Rome (or New Rome, or=20 Constantinople) had fallen into heresy at the Council of Florence and = had been=20 destroyed by the Turks as punishment from God, and the greater part of = the=20 Balkans was also under the domination of the Turks. To the Russians it = seemed no=20 coincidence that at the very time the Byzantine Empire came to an end, = they=20 themselves were at last throwing off the last remaining vestiges of = Tartar=20 suzerainty. God, it seemed, was granting Russia freedom because He had = chosen it=20 to be the successor of Byzantium. Russia was thus called upon to = preserve the=20 Orthodox faith and to be its champion and protector after the other two = Romes=20 had fallen.

As one writer goes on to expound on this matter, = Moscow was=20 indeed the Third Rome, the lawful successor of the New Rome, = Constantinople.=20 Moreover, the better Russian Tsars took this role and its attendant=20 responsibilities very seriously. They waged successive wars to liberate = the=20 Orthodox Balkans from the Turks and protect them from the Western = powers; they=20 spent large sums of money to support the Orthodox monasteries of Mount = Athos and=20 the Patriarchates of the Middle East; and Tsarism itself fell in a=20 self-sacrificial war to protect Orthodox Serbia from Catholic=20 Austria-Hungary.

7. The textbook gives a cause of the = developing disunity=20 between Rome and the Church. What was this cause?

One cause was due to the different political = situations in the=20 East and West, which in turn caused the Church to assume different = outward=20 forms. From the start, there had been a certain difference of emphasis = between=20 the East and West so that in time, people came to view Church order in=20 conflicting ways.

The East had many Churches of Apostolic foundation, = and it had=20 a strong awareness of the equality of all bishops and of the collegial = nature of=20 the Church. It saw the bishop of Rome as the first bishop, but first = among=20 equals.

In the West, only one great see dated back to the = Apostles =97=20 Rome, which caused the West to see Rome as the Apostolic see. = Also, while=20 Rome adhered to the decisions of the Ecumenical Councils, it did not = play an=20 active role in them, nor did it see the Church so much as a college as = it saw it=20 as a monarchy =97 the monarchy of the pope.

The textbook goes on to describe how a further = political=20 development reinforced this initial divergence: in the political vacuum = created=20 by the barbarian invasion of the West, the pope came to get involved in = both the=20 political and spiritual life of Western Europe. Not only did he act as = an=20 arbiter of contentions between disputing sovereigns, but he came to = assume the=20 role of an autocrat and absolute monarch over the Church.

As a political leader himself, the pope, after a = prolonged=20 dialectical process in the European Middle Ages, arrogated imperial = authority to=20 himself and assumed the right to appoint and depose kings and emperors. = In spite=20 of St. Jerome's dictum let the lust for Roman power cease, many = popes=20 became involved in a relentless campaign to increase the scope of their=20 authority, thereby establishing the foundation of papal absolutism and=20 dictatorship. As Archimandrite Sergius, former Assistant Professor at = the=20 Faculty of Theology at the University of Sofia, Bulgaria, notes of that=20 dictatorship, "Papism's earthly centralization and leadership are alien = to the=20 heavenly centralization of Christ's Church, as a Theanthropic body, = headed by=20 the glorified God-Man, Jesus Christ" (Mt 28:18). The papacy's earthly = leadership=20 is inconsistent with the authority of Christ both in Heaven = and on=20 earth." Even so, Rome's shrill demand for submission was to become an = invariable=20 feature governing its relations with Byzantium.

8. An active interest and participation of the = laity in=20 theology and Church life has always been a significant factor in = Orthodoxy. In=20 the West, theological education became limited to what group?

Theological education in the West came to be the = exclusive=20 domain of the clergy. As Archbishop Averky of Jordanville writes in this = regard:

Every kind of... disregard, contempt and = patronization of one's=20 flock is characteristic of Roman Catholicism, in which the clergy = imagine=20 themselves to be a higher, privileged class, in comparison with the = lower class=20 =97 the flock ["The Essence and Method of True Pastoral Care in Our = Times,"=20 Orthodox Life, vol. 47, no. 3, 1997, p. 15].

Further development of this idea is given by = Professor A.P.=20 Lopukin of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy. He notes that:

Roman Catholicism is, as it were, a continuation of = ancient,=20 pagan Rome, the spirit of which it assimilated, arraying itself in = Christian=20 garb only outwardly. In ancient Rome there were only two classes =97 the = upper,=20 privileged class of the patricians, and the lower class of the = plebeians. This=20 dichotomy was carried over into Christianized Rome: the clergy became = the=20 patricians, the upper, privileged class; the rank and file faithful = laymen=20 became the plebeians, the lower class, without any rights, who were = required=20 only to listen and in all things to submit without reservation, not = daring to=20 put itself forward in any way or in anything whatever [Ibid].

Another way in which the Latin Church browbeat the = laity was in=20 its depriving them of the ability to commune of the chalice, an = innovation that=20 was first allowed in the West in the twelfth century. This change runs = contrary=20 to Christ's direct words: "Drink ye all of it," and also: "Except ye eat = the=20 flesh of the Son of Man, and drink of His blood, ye have no life in you" = (Jn=20 6:53). Other scriptural passages as well clearly testify against the = Roman=20 Catholic practice (1 Cor 10:16-17; 11:26-30), as do patristic works. = Moreover,=20 Rome's change went against the universal practice of the ancient Church, = as well=20 as the express prohibition of many ancient popes. (It is important to = note,=20 however, that at that time, the Latin Church no longer had the Holy = Eucharist,=20 nor was there grace in any of its Sacraments, for it was severed from = Christ's=20 Church as of its schism in 1054). Protopriest Victor Potapov explains = that=20 although the Latin Church attempted to justify its deviation in this = matter with=20 various pretexts, the ultimate aim of this change was to show in the = very=20 communicating the superiority of the clergy over the laity.

(It is of interest to note that when the Bohemian = religious=20 reformer Jan Hus attacked the corruption of the Latin clergy, he = insisted that=20 the laity should be able to commune from the chalice, as was the = Orthodox and=20 early Western custom. For stating these things, he was excommunicated in = 1409,=20 after which he was captured and burned at the stake by the Latin = Church).

In yet another attempt to separate the clergy from = the rest of=20 society, a married clergy was done away with in the West. In the early = Church,=20 especially in the East, a married priesthood was the norm. This ancient = practice=20 was abandoned in the West with the papal changes of 1046-73. As = Professor=20 Aristeides Papadakis writes concerning this change: "Behind the campaign = for=20 celibacy, in sum, aside from the moral and canonical issues involved, = was the=20 desire to set all churchmen apart from and above the laity; the need to = create a=20 spiritual elite by the separation of the priest from the ordinary laymen = was an=20 urgent priority" [The Christian East and the Rise of the Papacy, = p. 37].=20 Adding to these ideas, Protopriest Victor Potapov explains that:

The Church cannot become free of subordination to = laymen if=20 clerics do not become free of their wives. With the rise of papal = authority, a=20 striving naturally had to arise to break those ties whereby the clergy = is united=20 with the family, and through it with the state; only a priest completely = free of=20 all familial and civil bonds and obligations could serve as a reliable=20 instrument in the hands of the Roman pontiffs for the achievement of = their=20 ambitious political plans [Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy].

The same Fr. Victor notes that too sharp a line = between the=20 clergy and laity was drawn by the Catholic clergy with the pope at its = head. An=20 artificial division into the Church of those who teach and those who are = taught=20 appeared, while in the sacramental life, the significance of the = prayerful=20 participation of the people of the Church has been diminished. In the = Roman=20 Catholic Church, the clergy elevated itself too much over the people, = and=20 abusing its position, it oppressed them.

9. One particular aspect of Church life that = the=20 textbook often brings out is the contribution which each individual = Church=20 center made to theology in ancient times. Each center put forth = understandings=20 and approaches to understandings which were often synthesized at the = General=20 Councils, guided by the Holy Spirit. What were the two theological focal = points=20 which separated Rome from this harmonious system?

(1) Papal claims of universal jurisdiction and = unlimited=20 sovereignty over the Universal Church. Rome's spirit of lust for power = and its=20 papal pretenses were contrary to the traditions and customs of the = Church, for,=20 as noted earlier, the Church is not and never was monarchical in = structure,=20 centered around a single bishop. In spite of that fact, however, the = pope=20 became an absolute dictator set up over the Western Church, one who = issued=20 orders not only to his ecclesiastical subordinates, but to secular = rulers as=20 well. As one writer notes, the medieval Frankish-Teutonic conception of = the pope=20 entails the greatest adulteration of Christianity and was the source of = further=20 distortion of Christianity in the West.

The Vatican still maintains that papal primacy = is beyond=20 question. On June 9, 2000, the pope approved a so-called "Note" of one = Joseph=20 Cardinal Ratzinger. This "Note" states that "no Roman pontiff ever = recognized...=20 [an]... equalization of sees or accepted that only a primacy of honor be = accorded to the see of Rome." A similar document titled Dominus = Iesus was=20 published on September 5, 2000, by the Vatican's Congregation for the = Doctrine=20 of Faith (formerly the Office of the Inquisition). Both statements are = an=20 attempt to seduce people into Rome's web of deceit concerning papal = primacy and=20 the primacy of the Latin Church.

(2) The matter of Rome's addition of the word = filioque=20 to the Creed. This change of wording in the Creed was introduced in the = early=20 medieval Western Church some centuries before the separation of Rome = from the=20 Universal Church. Rome took it upon itself to change the Creed without=20 consulting the rest of the Church, and the addition had ruinous effects = upon=20 Western theology.

10. In what year and in what council did = Charlemagne=20 manage to have the filioque approved?

Charlemagne had the filioque formula adopted = at the=20 semi-Iconoclast council at Frankfurt in 794. As Aristeides Papadakis = explains in=20 his book The Christian East and the Rise of the Papacy, this = addition was=20 achieved without official papal approval or authorization. = Charlemagne=20 used the filioque as propaganda against the Byzantine state, his=20 political adversary at that time, yet the addition was = disapproved of=20 by the papacy. Whenever Carolingian requests for an endorsement of = the=20 filioque were made, these requests were always firmly = denied by=20 the papacy. While singing the filioque at the royal chapel of = Aachen was=20 apparently permissible, tampering with the authoritative text of the = Creed in a=20 formal way was not.

Significantly, not only did Rome condemn the=20 filioque phrase on more than one occasion, but Rome had even been = its=20 primary opponent in the West since Charlemagne's advisors saw fit = to=20 endorse it. Until 1014, the Western Patriarchate had in fact faithfully = adhered=20 to the previous decisions of the Universal Church expressly prohibiting = any=20 addition to the Creed.

At his coronation in 1014, the German emperor Henry = II demanded=20 that the pope include the filioque in the Creed sung at Mass = (previously=20 the Creed was not a part of the Mass in Rome). The pope balked at first, = but=20 then submitted. As a result of its adoption at that time, the altered = Creed became standard throughout the West. Before long, Rome began = to=20 justify the alteration by claiming that it had doctrinal authority on = its own.=20 As papal apologists were to argue, it was sufficient that a Roman = pontiff had=20 declared it dogma. By his own petrine powers, the apologists asserted, = the pope=20 was not subject to conciliar judgment, but unlike everyone else, he had = the=20 right not only to convoke general councils, but to amplify and even = revise their=20 doctrines.

Of course, the arguments of the papal apologists were = not=20 without glaring contradictions. The apologists failed to note the = fact=20 that the popes had earlier affirmed the original text of the = Creed. Also,=20 the papal apologists failed to mention that the popes had earlier = refused=20 to fall in line with the Carolingians in the matter of the = filioque.

11. To what heresy was the council in = Frankfurt=20 related?

The council was related to the earlier heresy of=20 Iconoclasm.

12. How did Pope Leo III demonstrate his = rejection of=20 the filioque?

Pope Leo III wrote Charlemagne a letter stating that = while he=20 considered the filioque to be doctrinally sound, he did not = consider it=20 right to tamper with the wording of the Creed. The same pope had the = Creed=20 without the filioque inscribed on two silver plaques =97 one in = Latin and=20 one in Greek =97 and installed in St. Peter's.

13. What understanding of the filioque = do you=20 derive from this chapter?

First, the filioque interpolation should have = never been=20 inserted into the Creed as it revises the words of Christ in John = 15:26,=20 yet the words of Christ and Scripture cannot be revised. = Moreover, as=20 noted above, the Ecumenical Councils specifically forbade that = any=20 changes should ever be made in the Creed, and if it ever seemed that an = addition=20 should be necessary, then the only competent institution empowered with = such=20 authority was another Ecumenical Council. The Creed is the common = treasure of=20 the entire Church, and no individual part of the Church has the right to = modify=20 an ecumenical document by its own judgment in such a way as Rome did. = The Roman=20 Church, in its arbitrary alteration of the Creed without the consent of = the=20 East, committed what one writer described as moral fratricide =97 that = is, Rome is=20 guilty of a sin against the unity of the Church. (For this reason and = others,=20 some do not think that it is insignificant that the word amor = [love]=20 spelled backwards is Roma). As the scholarly Blessed Theophylact of = Ochrid noted=20 in the twelfth century, no doctrine could ever be viewed as correct just = because=20 it had been declared true by the pope, not even if the Latins "shake the = keys of=20 the kingdom in our faces." The textual corruption of the Creed = approved=20 by the papal throne was unlawful. Theological objections aside, = the=20 addition lacked both biblical and ecumenical authority.

Secondly, from the theological standpoint, the = filioque addition is untrue. Christ's words clearly = indicate that=20 the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father (Jn 15:26). On this = basis, it is=20 incorrect to state that the Holy Spirit also proceeds from the Son. = Rome's=20 addition of a word is not an abstruse theological issue, but one with=20 far-reaching consequences in other areas since the filioque = addition=20 destroys the balance between the three Persons of the Holy Trinity. It = also=20 leads to an erroneous understanding of the Holy Spirit's function in the = world,=20 thus promoting a false doctrine of the Church.

(The matter of the filioque addition to the = Creed and=20 how it profoundly affected Western theology for the worse will be fully=20 developed in chapter 8, answers 6-7 and 9-14).

14. Give your understanding of the nature of a = schism.

All the Holy Fathers speak as one against schism and = consider=20 it to be among the most damnable of sins. St. John Chrysostom, = for=20 example, states that not even the blood of martyrdom can wash = away the=20 sin of schism. Also, as St. Ignatius of Antioch, a disciple of the = Apostle John,=20 warned: "Make no mistake, brethren, no one who follows another into = schism will=20 inherit the Kingdom of God, no one who follows heretical doctrines is on = the=20 side of the Passion." [Ignatius to the Philadelphians 5:3.] The same = Father=20 further instructs:

He that is in the sanctuary is pure, but he that is = outside the=20 sanctuary is not pure. In other words, anyone who acts without the = bishop and=20 presbyter and the deacons does not have a clean conscience [Letters = to the=20 Romans, AD 110, in The Faith of the Early Fathers, vol. 1, p. = 18].

Likewise, St. Basil the Great instructs:

Because their separation [is] initiated through = schisms ...=20 those who [have] separated themselves from the Church no longer [have] = in=20 themselves the grace of the Holy Spirit.... Nor could they any longer = confer on=20 others that grace of the Holy Spirit from which they themselves had = fallen away=20 [The First Canonical Letters, AD 374, in The Faith of the = Early=20 Fathers, vol. 2, p. 6].

St. Basil's words are clear and revealing.

Frank Schaeffer, a former Protestant who converted to = Orthodox=20 Christianity, makes a number of observations regarding schisms. He = states that=20 God's plan for His Church does not include the unrepentant anarchy of = 23,000=20 denominations that have rendered claims of absolute truth ludicrous in = the eyes=20 of the world. The same writer goes on to state that according to Christ, = schisms=20 =97 that is, divisions among believers, is part of the antichrist's = program, not=20 that of God. Moreover, he notes, there are repeated warnings in the New=20 Testament against schism, division, strive and lording it over others. = These=20 warnings are so frequent that the call for Church unity, order and = humble=20 collegiality might be described as the main theme of the epistles. Holy=20 Tradition also teaches against schism, calling it a re-crucifixion of=20 Christ.

15. What is the meaning of the Great Schism?

The Great Schism of 1054, that is, the breakaway of = the Roman=20 Church from the Church Universal, is the greatest tragedy to befall = Christendom.=20 For the benefit of those Christians outside Eastern Orthodoxy, = Protopriest=20 Victor Potapov's concise explanation of that event is provided here. Fr. = Victor=20 writes that:

In the year 752, Pope Zacharias anointed Pepin the = Short, the=20 chief steward of the Frankish kings, to be king, and thereby gave, as it = were,=20 the Church's blessing to the overthrown, carried out by Pepin in the = Frankish=20 kingdom, that removed the lawful Frankish king from power. For this, = Pepin, in=20 the year 755, took away from the Germanic tribe of the Lombards the = lands=20 conquered by them in Italy and delivered into the pope's hands the = Ravenna=20 Exarchate, which had previously belonged to the Byzantine Empire, and = the keys=20 to twenty-two cities. Thus, the pope was transformed from a subject of = the=20 Eastern Roman (Constantinopolitan) emperor into an independent secular=20 sovereign, not dependent on any other sovereign, with an independent = territory=20 and with possession of supreme state authority on this territory.

This rapidly corrupted the morals of the papacy. The = inner=20 contradiction between the ascetic ideal and secular authority appeared = as a=20 dangerous enemy of the moral purity of the popes. It entailed a radical = change=20 not only in the status, but also in the behavior, in the intentions, in = the=20 aspirations, and in the modi operandi of the Roman popes. Conceit, = pride, lust=20 for power, and the aspiration to subordinate all the local Churches to = their=20 authority, which had previously appeared in the behavior of the Roman = popes only=20 as tendencies, as sporadic phenomena, now wholly takes possession of the = popes.

At first, the popes set themselves the task of = strengthening=20 their authority in those Western Churches =97 the African, Spanish and = Gallic =97=20 which did not form a part of the Roman Church. Despite a certain = resistance on=20 the part of the African Church, the popes succeeded comparatively easily = in=20 securing the subordination of these Churches to themselves: great was = the=20 authority of Rome in these former provinces.

As for the Churches newly founded in Britain, = Germany, and in=20 the other countries of Western Europe by missionaries of the Roman = bishop, the=20 popes succeeded in subordinating them to their authority all the more = easily,=20 inasmuch as the idea of the supremacy of the pope in the Church was = inculcated=20 in them simultaneously with the preaching of Christianity.

The popes, while subordinating the Western Churches = to=20 themselves, were simultaneously taking measures in order to substantiate = their=20 authority, if not dogmatically, then at least juridically. For this, a=20 collection of ecclesiastical juridical acts was compiled in the West at = the=20 beginning of the ninth century in the name of the authoritative Spanish = sacred=20 minister, Isidore. Since both the name of the compiler and the contents = of the=20 collection, as was later established, were spurious, it received the = name=20 "Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals." The collection consists of three parts. In = the=20 first are fifty Apostolic Canons and sixty decretals of the Roman popes. = Of=20 these sixty decretals, two are partly falsified, while fifty-eight are=20 altogether spurious. In the second part, among other spurious material, = is the=20 spurious donation of the city of Rome by the Emperor Constantine the = Great to=20 the Roman Pope Silvester. The collection was first published only at the = end of=20 the sixteenth century, and then scholars proved without difficulty the=20 spuriousness of the documents that were in it. At the present time, even = Catholic scholars do not recognize their authenticity. But at that time, = the=20 collection served as an authoritative basis for the development of=20 ecclesiastical relations in the West, inasmuch as it was accepted on = faith and=20 enjoyed the authority of authenticity in the course of the Middle Ages. = The=20 popes began to cite the decretals of the collection categorically in=20 substantiation of their rights to supremacy in the whole Church.

Pope Nicholas (858-876) began to cite the = "Pseudo-Isidorian=20 Decretals" first, inasmuch as he first formulated sharply and decisively = the=20 idea of papal omnipotence in the Church. But the East, naturally, did = not=20 recognize this omnipotence. Pope Nicholas I attempted to subordinate the = East to=20 himself in one swoop. But he did not succeed in this. As a consequence = of this=20 failure, a Church schism appeared: the first time in the ninth century, = and=20 finally in the eleventh century (1054).

The external history of the falling away of the Roman = Church is=20 such [Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy].

The year 1054 is assigned to the cataclysmic schism = that=20 plunged Western Europe into the darkness of heresy, the schism which = produced=20 the Roman Catholic Church. Afterwards, the continuing putrefaction of = the Roman=20 Church produced the thousands of Protestant Churches and their = offspring.

Regarding the 1054 date, it is largely symbolic and = does not=20 pinpoint the exact date of separation of the West from the East. = Moreover, it=20 cannot be maintained that the Roman Church ceased overnight to be a = repository=20 of ecclesial grace. Instead, it became spiritually ill, the disease of = heresy=20 spread, and the West gradually came to be detached from the rest of the = body.=20 The saints and various synods since that time attest to this fact. = Speaking of=20 the decline of Christianity in the West, Hieromonk Seraphim Rose = remarks:

One might cite numerous manifestations of this = remarkable=20 change in the West: the beginnings of Scholasticism or the = academic-analytical=20 approach to knowledge as opposed to the traditional... approach of = Orthodoxy;=20 the beginning of the "age of romance," when fables and legends were = introduced=20 into Christian texts; the new naturalism in art (Giotto) which destroyed = iconography; the new "personal" concept of sanctity (Francis of Assisi), = unacceptable to Orthodoxy, which gave rise to later Western "mysticism" = and=20 eventually to the innumerable sects and pseudo-religious movements of = modern=20 times; and so forth. The cause of this change is something that cannot = be=20 evident to a Roman Catholic scholar: it is the loss of the grace which = follows=20 on separation from the Church of Christ and which puts one at the mercy = of the=20 "spirit of the times" and of purely human ways of life and thought.

For a Western Christian, the explanation of the Great = Schism in=20 the textbook could lead to the mistaken notion that Rome's separation = from the=20 Church was nothing more than a fortuitous outcome of non-theological = factors=20 (historical and political) in the East and West that only secondarily = spilled=20 over into the theological realm. Such was not the case. Even though = theological=20 and non-theological matters alike were mixed together in the schism that = cut the=20 West off from Christ's Church, it was ultimately the theological = issues=20 that were the root of the schism =97 a point underemphasized in the = textbook, but=20 made in the prefatory notes to the theology course. The same notes go on = to=20 explain that however deeply Christians in any age may be affected by = historical=20 events, the Church is not. The Church remains ever the same =97 = immovable,=20 unshakable and eternal =97 just as its Head, Jesus Christ, is.

The prefatory notes also refer to the fact that all = bishops are=20 equal and that none is infallible. Bishops and their dioceses are = protected from=20 error and heresy by their obedience to the Church's Councils. Since = these=20 Councils are assemblies of all bishops and are under the guidance of the = Holy=20 Spirit, they are expressive of the conscience of the Church, which alone = is=20 infallible. When a bishop places himself above the Councils, he severs = himself=20 from the only real protection from error and heresy he has =97 these = same ancient=20 Councils, and he has no source of guidance of the Holy Spirit. Heresy = and error=20 are inevitable for such a bishop.

Further explaining the Great Schism, the prefatory = notes=20 mention that all Orthodox Fathers presented their writings asking: Is = this what=20 the Scripture teaches? Is this how Sacred Tradition understands it? Is = this how=20 the previous Councils have defined it? They would then submit their = writings to=20 the conscience of the Church for its approval. Anyone disobedient to = this way=20 will separate himself from the Church, the notes state. And = should this=20 separation involve a bishop who takes a diocese or Patriarchate with = him, this=20 separation constitutes a schism. And the notes conclude, to be in = schism=20 is to be cut off =97 by one's choice and deed =97 from the Holy Church, = and thus cut=20 off from Christ.

Metropolitan Anthony, former First Hierarch of the = Russian=20 Church in Exile, explains that it is not possible for there to be a = split=20 within or among the Churches. He states that from time to = time,=20 people have fallen away from the one indivisible Church, and in doing = so, they=20 ceased to be members of it. Thus, there was no "division" of Churches in = 1054,=20 but rather a "falling off." If a "division" had occurred, it would have = meant=20 that after one unified Church had existed for one thousand years, there = came=20 into being not one but two Churches, something contrary to = Christ's=20 promise that the Church is one (Mt 16:18). According to this = promise, the=20 Church can never lose its unity, but will always remain = one.

The Church has experienced a succession of heresies = and schisms=20 from the very earliest times. A particularly long-lived separation began = in the=20 fifth and sixth centuries over Christological issues, when entire = nations =97=20 Egypt, Ethiopia, Armenia, and large parts of the Syrian population = abandoned the=20 communion of the Orthodox Church. Rome's schism is therefore nothing new = to the=20 history of the Church. It is not the earliest schism, nor is it the = longest one=20 in duration; it differs only in its being the largest one in = terms of the=20 number of people who were severed from the Church.

After the Great Schism of 1054, there were two = different groups=20 of believers =97 the Orthodox, who maintained the Apostolic Christian = faith of=20 their ancestors, and the Western papal Catholics, who after separating = from the=20 Apostolic Church developed with surprising rapidity into a religion = different=20 both from the pre-schism Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy. As = one=20 historian noted, an early Christian would have felt at home in the = Western=20 Church of the eleventh century, but out of place in that of the twelfth=20 century.

The Latin Church has not come to terms with the = terrible event=20 of 1054 and falsely maintains that the Orthodox Church went into schism = at that=20 time. Rome adds that while Orthodoxy is schismatic, it is not heretical. = That=20 is, Rome teaches that Eastern Orthodoxy does not have false = doctrines.

Moreover, in an attempt to keep its flock from ever=20 investigating Christ's true Church and becoming Orthodox, Rome claims = that=20 nothing essential separates Orthodoxy from the Latin Church, other than=20 Orthodoxy's refusal to accept the "universal authority" of the pope. = Beyond this=20 matter, Rome teaches, any doctrinal differences are only = "misunderstandings"=20 because of incomplete formulations.

In spite of Rome's claim that Orthodoxy went into = schism,=20 history is clear in showing that once Rome no longer looked to Sacred = Tradition,=20 to the ancient Councils, or to the Church Fathers =97 much to the = opposition of=20 the entire East, it set itself above these and attempted to define = theological=20 issues on its own. Thus Rome cut itself off from its only protection = against=20 error and heresy, and it ineluctably fell into heresy itself. Rome was = no longer=20 a part of the continuing unity of Christ's Church after the Great Schism = of=20 1054. To this day, even though the Roman Catholic Church claims to be = the true=20 Church, it stands outside the boundaries of the one true Church that = Christ=20 established on earth. After 1054, the Orthodox Church is the only true=20 continuation of the early undivided Church.

16. How did papal claims and the idea of papal = infallibility ensure that false teachings such as purgatory, merits, = atonement,=20 indulgences, the Assumption, etc., would become embedded in the doctrine = of the=20 Latin Church?

Over the course of its ten centuries of separation = from the=20 Orthodox Church, the Latin Church introduced a host of innovations, = chief among=20 which are the dogmas of papal supremacy and infallibility, the = filioque,=20 created grace, the Immaculate Conception and purgatory. To understand = how these=20 false doctrines became solidly established in Roman Catholicism, it is = necessary=20 to recall the formula of a schism. Once Rome placed itself above the = Ecumenical=20 Councils, which are expressive of the conscience of the Church, it = severed=20 itself from its only protection against error and heresy, thus ensuring = that it=20 would fall into heresy itself =97 and so it did. When Rome turned = its back=20 on its former correct understanding that all bishops are equal = and=20 consult with one another in councils, and when it likewise ignored the=20 conscience of the Church, which alone is infallible, it began to make=20 pretensions and heretical claims about its own bishop, starting in the = ninth=20 century. In time (1870), Rome went on to invent the false dogma that the = bishop=20 of Rome is infallible when speaking ex cathedra on matters of = faith and=20 morals.

The doctrine of papal infallibility was actually only = an=20 extension of the false teaching of universal authority. As the = introduction to=20 this book notes, papal infallibility is denied by the very Church = that=20 invented it, for the Roman Catholic Church admits that many = Roman=20 popes were heretics and that many spoke falsehood when making = ex=20 cathedra pronouncements concerning faith and morals. Papal = infallibility is=20 again shown to be false since the Apostle Peter, who the Latin Church = proclaims=20 was its first pope, was not infallible. At the Apostolic Council held at = Jerusalem (cf. second chapter of Galatians), Peter was chided by Paul = for not=20 keeping the faith, whereupon Peter felt a need to renounce publicly his=20 incorrect views. Given the fact that Peter spoke falsehood, Rome's = argument=20 of papal infallibility collapses.

One absurd and even blasphemous teaching of the Latin = Church is=20 that of supererogatory works, which can be explained exclusively = by the=20 avarice of the popes and the Catholic clergy. This false teaching was = confirmed=20 in 1343, and as Protopriest Victor Potapov explains, it maintains that = many of=20 the saints, in endeavoring to realize in their own lives not only God's = law or=20 the commandments (praecepta), offered superabundant, = supererogatory=20 satisfaction to the divine justice and performed supererogatory good = works=20 (opera supererogatonis). From them, a certain quantity still = remains, as=20 it were, of excess, supererogatory good works. This excess makes up the=20 so-called treasury of supererogatory merits (thesarus = meritorium), which=20 is at the complete and unconditional disposal of the pope. Whoever does = not have=20 as many of his own deeds as are needed to satisfy God's justice for his = sins,=20 can =97 by the mercy of the pope =97 make use of the = supererogatory merits of=20 the saints in the Church's treasury =97 so Rome teaches in complete=20 contradiction of the clear teaching of Sacred Scripture on man's = salvation.=20 The ideal of Christian perfection is so high, Fr. Victor explains, is so = unattainable, that not only can man never perform anything = supererogatory, but=20 he cannot even attain this ideal. Fr. Victor goes on to cite two = scriptural=20 passages to explain. For example, the Lord said to His disciples: "When = you=20 shall have done all these things which are commanded of you, say, 'We = are=20 unworthy servants: we have done that which was our duty to do'" (Lk = 17:10).=20 Again, the Apostle Paul writes:

For grace ye are saved through faith; and not of = yourselves: it=20 is the gift of God: not of works, lest any man should boast. For we are = His=20 workmanship, created in Christ Jesus unto good works, which God hath = before=20 ordained that we should walk in them (Eph 2:8-10).

Regarding Rome's teaching on so-called = purgatory=20 (purgatorium), Orthodoxy considers it improper to elevate any = speculative=20 theological opinions to the level of dogma as Rome did with this matter. = This=20 opinion on the afterlife was elaborated and developed in detail after = Rome cut=20 itself off from the Apostolic Church in 1054, and it was accepted as = dogma in=20 1439. Scriptures speak of Heaven and hell, but they mention no other = place for=20 the departed. The Latin Church went on to add an intermediate place or = state for=20 those souls who repented but died before undergoing temporal punishment = here on=20 earth for their sins to satisfy divine justice: this same purgatory. = There,=20 souls of the dead suffer various tortures to pay for their sins, and = each soul=20 stays there as much time as it is necessary to expiate those sins =97 or = else, the=20 Latin Church also teaches =97 the period of torments can be shortened by = way of=20 papal indulgences, which were granted not without the influence = of=20 financial motives (The matter of indulgences will be discussed = below).=20 When the period of torment ends, when the debt paid to God's justice is = paid in=20 full, the purified soul then passes from purgatory to Paradise.

Nikolaos Vassiliadis gives an in-depth examination of = the=20 history of the false teaching of purgatory in his book The Mystery of = Death. Noting that there is no basis whatsoever for the teaching in=20 Scripture, he explains that the teaching was borrowed instead from three = other=20 sources: 1) from the atheistic Chaldeans, 2) from Origen, whose teaching = on the=20 subject was condemned by the Fifth Ecumenical Council, and 3) from the=20 Monophysite and Platonist Philoponos, whose heretical teachings date to = the=20 first half of the sixth century.

The cleansing fire of purgatorial flames and torments = described=20 in medieval literature are a complete myth. The souls of the dead are = not=20 cleansed or purged of their iniquities by virtue of many years of = purgatorial=20 torments themselves, by which they personally offer satisfaction to = God's=20 justice. Once the soul departs from the body, the ability of the soul to = change=20 its own status disappears. At that time, only the prayers and good works = of the=20 members of Christ's Church can assist that soul. If a soul experiences = torments=20 in hades as a result of sins it committed in earthly life, no other = torment is=20 permitted or is even necessary. As St. Mark of Ephesus wrote: "For if = the=20 remission of sins is accomplished for the sake of prayers, or merely by = the=20 divine love of mankind itself, there is no need for punishment and = cleansing [by=20 fire]."

Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos lists many = sources of the=20 false teaching of purgatory, among which is the politico-economic = connection of=20 popery. He explains that:

The connecting of the purifying fire with material = offerings=20 brought the people's disenchantment with the popery. It is said that the = purifying fire, the so-called purgatory, was invented for the completion = of the=20 temple of the Apostle Peter in Rome and the upkeep of the papal palace. = But it=20 must be observed that the dogma of the purifying fire was not invented = simply to=20 exploit the people, because... it is in line with the Franco-Latins' = scholastic=20 theology. Nevertheless, it was used for economic reasons as well = [Life After=20 Death, pp. 199-200].

As the Latins demonstrated at the Council of = Ferrara-Florence=20 (1438-39), they had no interest whatsoever in seeking the truth = concerning=20 purgatory. Their interest instead was simply to impose their heretical = views on=20 the Orthodox. The fact remains, however, that purgatory is "a fruit and = result=20 of the scholastic theology of the Franco-Latins and has no relationship = to=20 Orthodox theology as Christ taught it, the Apostles lived it, and the = Holy=20 Fathers handed it down to us" (Metropolitan Hierotheos).

Rome's medieval teaching on indulgences = (referred to=20 above) is yet another false teaching that was completely unknown in the = ancient,=20 undivided Church as it contradicts the whole spirit of Orthodoxy. An = indulgence=20 is the forgiveness or reduction of the temporal punishment that a sinner = must=20 undergo for the satisfaction of God's justice. After the guilt and = external=20 punishment are remitted in the sacrament of repentance, indulgences are = granted=20 to a sinner by the agency of the pope, of the Saviour=92s surplus merits = and the=20 supererogatory good works of the Mother of God and the saints. Fr. = Victor=20 Potapov notes that the profitableness of indulgences led to their = greater and=20 greater growth and the search for new occasions for granting them. They = are not=20 usually given out ex gratis, but are generally sold for money =97 = under the=20 pretext, of course, of performing good works with the money. As the = advocates=20 and sellers of indulgences =97 including the popes, who trafficked in = them, were=20 guided by monetary interests, attacks on indulgences were some of the = first=20 features of the Reformation movement.

With regard to the boundlessly insulting and = blasphemous dogma=20 of the Immaculate Conception, while it seems to exalt the Mother = of God,=20 it actually belittles her by denying all of her virtues. This false = teaching=20 maintains that Mary was placed in a state where it was impossible = for her=20 to sin, and thus she could not sin even if she wanted to. However, where = there=20 is no impulse to sin and no effort in overcoming temptations, neither is = there=20 any victory. Through the Immaculate Conception, the Latin Church takes = away all=20 victory and merit from the holiest of all the saints, the Mother of God. = (Both=20 this Latin dogma and that of the Assumption will be examined in detail = in=20 chapter ten).

False teachings would have never become a part of the = Latin=20 Church had it remained united to Christ's Church, and had Rome submitted = these=20 teachings before a universal assembly of bishops from the entire Church, = both=20 East and West. As a body gathered in Council, such an assembly would = have had=20 the Holy Spirit as its guiding force, as opposed to a single = fallible=20 bishop. (As previously noted, however, as of Rome's severance from the = Church in=20 1054, the popes were no longer so much as laymen in the Church, much = less=20 bishops, for Apostolic Succession was ended in the West).

Although the Roman Church emerged from the Orthodox = Church and=20 was once bound to it as the Church of martyrs, saints, hierarchs and=20 right-believing Orthodox Christians, Rome was severed from it as of the = Great=20 Schism. After the dictatorial popes were cut off from Christ's Church, = they were=20 also cut off from the Holy Spirit, and cut off from the fullness of = Truth and=20 from the only source of infallibility. As a result, they were no longer = able to=20 combat heresy when it arose, and false doctrines became firmly fixed in = the=20 Latin Church through the popes' ex cathedra promulgations of = falsehood.=20 Subsequently, amidst the waves of apostasy that blinded future = generations in=20 the West, the faith of Western Christians slowly began to change and = deviate=20 from the pure faith of the Apostolic Church. This process has continued = unabated=20 to the present time, and now there is hardly any similarity remaining = between=20 the West and Eastern Orthodoxy. As Philip Sherrard notes in this regard, = the=20 Christian West departed so far from the fullness of Truth, that it now = possesses=20 "a mentality increasingly non-religious in nature," even when it thinks = that it=20 is being "religious." [Philip Sherrard, The Greek East and the Latin = West: A=20 Study in the Christian Tradition, 1992].

Archpriest Alexey Young goes on to explain that in = the past,=20 Church Councils were historically called in order to address errors and = heresy=20 by triumphantly proclaiming the faith. The Second Vatican Council = (1963),=20 however, had no such purpose. Instead, the doors of the Latin Church = were thrown=20 open to:

... naturalism, humanism, Marxism, liberalism, = modernism, and=20 renovation. Everything was "new": the "new Church," the "new = priesthood," the=20 "new Liturgy," the "new Christian," etc. The council itself said that = the Church=20 must now take full account of "new forms of culture (mass culture) which = give=20 rise to new ways of thinking, acting and making use of leisure." In = other words,=20 the Church must "adapt," be "relevant," and turn herself inside out, if=20 necessary. Everything old and venerable could now be cast aside. Monks = and nuns=20 took off their habits and became social workers. The laity, at last free = of=20 Western Christian traditions, were permitted to experiment with = so-called=20 "Christian yoga" and "Christian zen," to name just two of the stranger = forms of=20 spirituality that began to be dabbled in at the parochial level.

Politically, Christ Himself was now seen not as the = Redeemer,=20 but as the Revolutionary Liberator. This meant that the old moral = restrictions,=20 so heartily proclaimed and enforced from the pulpit prior to the Vatican = Council=20 were now no longer taught.

/.../ Towards the end of his life, Paul VI was = stricken by the=20 realization of what he had done during his reign. He realized in his = last two=20 years that something unimaginably ominous had been moving inexorably = towards=20 them, was already in their midst, and that it had nothing to do with the = Holy=20 Spirit. "The smoke of Satan has entered the Church, is around the = altar,"=20 he remarked somberly and helplessly.... Nothing he did could stem the = onslaught=20 on him =97 for had he not espoused a "people's church" where all had = equal voice?=20 =97 women who wanted to be priests, priests who wanted to be married ... = homosexuals and divorced people who called for acceptance of their = status on=20 their terms, Marxist priests and bishops and [laypeople] who claimed his = approval to destroy the social order.... It was the new "people" let = loose on=20 the old kingdom, and Paul had no defense against them. Increasingly he = reacted=20 with tears [The Rush to Embrace, pp. 42-44; emphasis added].

St. John of Shanghai and San Francisco (+1966) = explained that=20 Christ's promise that the gates of hell shall not prevail against the = Church (Mt=20 16:18) is promised only to the True, Universal Church. However, upon = those who=20 have fallen away from it (such as the Roman Catholic Church) are = fulfilled the=20 words: "As a branch cannot bear fruit of itself, except it abide in = the vine;=20 so neither can ye, except ye abide in Me" (Jn 15:4).

17. What do you consider to be the most important = point made in=20 this chapter?

By far, the most significant points are those given = in the=20 prefatory notes' summation of the Great Schism. The textbook's account, = while=20 not without some merit in giving general background information, is=20 rationalistic in its approach and is very much lacking in real substance = in=20 causal analysis. This defect no doubt traces to the author's = non-Orthodox=20 background.

The textbook's explanation of the Great Schism would = appear=20 flawed to Orthodox theologians as they have never thought in the = Cartesian=20 method of the West. Two Greek hierarchs, Archbishop Chrysostomos of Etna = and=20 Bishop Auxentios of Photiki, comment on this fact, saying that unlike = the=20 Western thinker, Orthodox do not begin at zero, at = nothing, and=20 then develop their observations about things. Instead, they begin at = one,=20 as it were, and work from certain basic assumptions.

In the Western system that begins at zero, the = hierarchs=20 explain, Western thinkers might begin by assuming that God does not = exist (or=20 that nothing exists), and then proceed to establish the existence = of God=20 and the created world. When the Westerner projects this way of thinking = onto=20 history, he is confused how an obscure religion in a remote section of = the world=20 could have accomplished its triumph.

Even if a Westerner does acknowledge the divine = nature of the=20 Christian religion, the hierarchs continue, he is inclined to assume = that the=20 Church was something less than a divine manifestation. He usually = imagines that=20 it took root in the Roman Empire because of certain social, political = and=20 economic factors that favored its growth. A Westerner begins with a = secular=20 history that is infused with a divine witness, but with a zero = assumption about=20 the divine content of history.

This way of thinking impinges upon the textbook's = analysis of=20 the Great Schism and taints it, for its author projects social, = political,=20 linguistic and cultural factors onto that history. Ultimately he gets = bogged=20 down in the details of the historical minutiae of the event until his = task of=20 generalization suffers. That is, he fails to convey the larger = picture of=20 the historical event, which is the goal of historical inquiry.

As noted, an Orthodox works from certain assumptions. = He always=20 assumes the existence of God and His created world, for example, and = bases his=20 intellectual observations on this a priori assumption. In viewing = history, an=20 Orthodox makes the assumption that the Christian Church is divine and = that=20 history is the story of its divine manifestation. He begins with a = history that=20 is divine, a history whose content is the story of the manifestation of = the=20 divine.

The textbook's analysis of the Great Schism = ultimately fails=20 because its author, like other rationalistic scholars, tends to ascribe = too much=20 importance to secondary causes to historical events, thinking that they = are the=20 real causes. This is not so, for political, cultural, economic and other = factors=20 are completely secondary. The primary cause of history is always = spiritual. As=20 Hieromonk Seraphim Rose once explained at a remote monastery in a = mountain=20 wilderness:

The real cause [of historical events] is the soul and = God;=20 whatever God is doing and whatever the soul is doing. These two things = actualize=20 the whole of history; and all the external events =97 what treaty was = signed, or=20 the economic reasons for the discontent of the masses, and so forth =97 = are=20 totally secondary. In fact, if you look at modern history, at the whole=20 revolutionary movement, it is obvious that it is not economics that is = the=20 governing factor, but various ideas which get into people's souls about = actually=20 building paradise on earth. Once that idea gets there, then fantastic = things are=20 done, because this is a spiritual thing. Even though it is from the = devil, it is=20 on a spiritual level, and that is where actual history is made.

The primary cause of the Great Schism, that is, the = spiritual=20 cause, was the temptation placed into the hearts of the popes by the = devil =97 the=20 temptation to sell out Christ for earthly rule, for universal = sovereignty and=20 domination. The popes yielded to that satanic suggestion, even as many = angels=20 once yielded to Lucifer's suggestion to rebel against God, and even as = Adam and=20 Eve yielded to temptation in the Garden of Eden. Therein lies the = spiritual=20 level where the history of the infinitely tragic fall of the Roman = Church was=20 made. Indeed, it is on that level that all history is made.

To view history in this way is to acknowledge that = there is a=20 first cause, which is what God does in history and how the soul reacts = to it,=20 and that the secondary cause is ordinary events. This understanding is = the=20 correct understanding of history, for it looks above, not = below.

Hieromonk Patapios of Etna observes that the author = of the=20 textbook apparently does not believe that divine providence is the = central=20 guiding principle in the historical unfolding of the Orthodox Church. = From an=20 Orthodox point of view, the Cambridge University-educated scholar = explains,=20 "The Great Schism was not only a tragedy, but also an act of divine=20 providence that protected the Eastern Church from infection by the = bacterium of=20 Latin heresy." It is parenthetically added that "the tragic = dimensions [of=20 the schism] are to be found in the loss of human souls, many of whom = were=20 innocent victims of the heresies promoted by the popes and their = toadies."=20 [The Orthodox Church and The Orthodox Way Reviewed, p. 8].

18. Although it is not mentioned in the = textbook, give=20 your understanding of the Petrine theory.

On the basis of Matthew 16:18, the Roman Catholic = Church=20 proudly proclaims the Petrine theory =97 that is, that the Apostle Peter = is the=20 rock upon which Christ wished to build His Church. An analysis of = this=20 theory shows that Rome's claim is altogether spurious from the = standpoint=20 of the biblico-patristic tradition, and also from a grammatical analysis = of the=20 scriptural passage.

In the Greek language, the equivalent for Peter = is=20 Petros, which means little stone, while rock is = petra.=20 Since petra is of the feminine gender, it cannot refer back to a=20 masculine Peter. This fact is conveniently overlooked by Roman = apologists.

What Christ was actually saying to Peter was: "You = are Peter=20 [Petros, a little stone], and upon this rock = [petra,=20 that is, your proclamation of Me as Christ], I will build My = Church,=20 since you alone could not support the weight of its foundation." In = other words,=20 Christ will build His Church upon a person's profession of faith in Him = as the=20 Christ, but not upon a mere mortal man such as Peter. Christ never = stated that=20 He would build His Church on a man (Peter), a little stone, as this = would be too=20 faulty a foundation. Instead, Christ will build His Church upon = Himself,=20 the only foundation possible, and upon Peter's profession of faith=20 (homologica). The word homologica, coincidentally, is = feminine in=20 Greek, thus corresponding exactly to petra, a large unmovable=20 monolith.

The Apostle Peter himself obviously recognizes these = facts as=20 he speaks of believers as stones, and of Jesus as the=20 rock "upon which God builds" (1 Peter 2:5-8). = Again, the=20 Apostle Paul answers who the rock is. He states without qualification = that=20 the rock is Christ. "For God has already placed Jesus Christ = as the=20 one and only foundation, and no other foundation can be laid" (1 Cor = 3:11).

One of the laymen who opposed the false teaching of = papal=20 infallibility (something that grew out of the equally false doctrine of = papal=20 supremacy) was Johan Josef Ignaz von Dollinger, Germany's greatest Roman = Catholic historian. Dr. von Dollinger was a professor of canon law and = Church=20 history at Munich University and was president of the Bavarian Royal = Academy of=20 Sciences. Under his leadership, Munich University gained first place in = Europe=20 as a center for ecclesiastical studies. Dr. von Dollinger himself was = recognized=20 throughout the world as one of the greatest historical scholars in = Europe, and=20 he was recognized as the greatest Church historian of his day, = bar none.=20 Dr. von Dollinger was also universally acclaimed as a patron of Roman = Catholic=20 Church history in the nineteenth century.

Shortly after the proclamation of the heresy of papal = infallibility, Dr. von Dollinger published the book The Pope and the=20 Council =97 a frontal attack on papal infallibility. In this book, = the=20 perspicacious author made a number of irrefutable observations from = history,=20 among which is the fact that papal infallibility was completely = unknown in=20 the early Church and has always been relentlessly resisted by the = Orthodox=20 Church. Therefore, he added, "To the adherents of the theory of = infallibility,=20 the history of the Church must appear as an incomprehensible problem." = [Quoted=20 in Michael Whelton, Two Paths... p. 184.] Moreover, Dr. von = Dollinger=20 went on to add, no one was ever accused of heresy in denying the = authority of=20 the popes in their pronouncements of faith. He also pointed out that it = was only=20 much later, by means of a good number of forgeries (see below), = that=20 papal infallibility gained ground. In view of these facts, he correctly=20 concluded that Rome would forever be forced to pile one lie on top of = another=20 to support this new and false teaching of papal infallibility.

For Dr. von Dollinger=92s great intellectual honesty, = his book=20 was quickly placed on the Index of Forbidden books. Also, to make = sure=20 that the book would never see the light of day in Catholic circles, the = decree=20 stressed quocumque idiomate =97 "in whatever language" it may be = published.=20 As for Dr. von Dollinger himself, the Latin Church excommunicated him = =97 one=20 additional act of the intimidating coercive tactics that Pope Pius IX = used all=20 along in order to see that the false doctrine of papal infallibility = would=20 become a reality.

As for the testimony of the Church Fathers, not a = single one of=20 them interprets Matthew 16:18 (et al.) as applying to the Roman = bishops=20 as Peter's successors. St. John Chrysostom taught that "the rock on = which Christ=20 will build His Church means the faith of confession." Dr. von Dollinger = observed=20 that the other Fathers understood rock in this sense, or understood rock = to be=20 Christ Himself; or else they understood it as both of these together =97 = as Christ=20 and as Peter's confession of faith in Christ. Since the Fathers left so = complete=20 a witness, Rome is shorn of all defense in its papal claims. For = this=20 reason, the subject of patristics (or patrology, the study of the = teaching of=20 the Fathers) is given a minor place in Roman Catholic seminary = curricula. For=20 this same reason did the Latin Church resort to editing manuscripts = and=20 doctoring the testimony of the Church Fathers.

Among the Roman Catholic Church's numerous = forgeries=20 mentioned above, one was the Donation of Constantine. Concerning = this=20 document, Professor Walter H. Turner of the University of Detroit writes = that it=20 is universally accepted as one of the greatest forgeries of = history.=20 According to the Donation of Constantine, which was defended as = authoritative=20 until the sixteenth century, the Emperor Constantine confers upon Pope = Silvester=20 I and his successors spiritual primacy over all other patriarchs and = bishops=20 of the world, granting him imperial honors and granting to the chief = Roman=20 clergy senatorial distinctions and honors. To supremacy in spiritual = matters was=20 added temporal dominion over Rome, over Italy, and over the provinces, = districts=20 and cities of the Western regions. Importantly, this document is not = without=20 egregious blunders. For example, Constantine supposedly = gives the=20 pope dominion over the four Patriarchates of the East, although=20 Constantinople and Jerusalem had not yet been elevated to patriarchal = sees. (Jerusalem, in fact, was not declared a see until the Council = of=20 Chalcedon in 451, some 130 years later). Elsewhere, Constantine was = calling=20 himself the conqueror of the Huns fifty years prior to their entering = Europe.

The Cambridge Medieval History describes the = Donation of=20 Constantine as the "cornerstone of papal power" (vol. 11, p. 586). = For over=20 600 years this fraudulent document was an unqualified success in = advancing the=20 falsehood of papal claims. Finally, however, in the face of=20 scholarship that proved it was a brazen forgery, the Roman Catholic = Church=20 itself admitted that it was a hoax. (Even so, in spite of that = admission,=20 Rome continued deceiving the Western world with the notion of the = primacy=20 of the pope).

This counterfeit document and others like it are = never=20 mentioned by the Latin Church today, of course, because of their origin = and=20 content. However, the evidence of the Donation of Constantine and = other=20 extensive forgeries in the Latin Church beg the questions: if there = were=20 absolute evidence of Rome's supreme universal jurisdiction, then why = did Rome=20 resort to counterfeit documents? Why the necessity to forge?

As for the Apostle Peter himself, he knew only one = "Supreme=20 Shepherd" =97 Jesus Christ. Peter never spoke of any = primacy or=20 sovereignty over the Church, nor did he ever raise himself over the = other=20 pastors of the Church. Very much to the contrary, Peter addressed the = other=20 pastors as equals and brothers (Acts 1:16, 2:29, 3:17, = 15:7).=20 Likewise, the Apostle Paul knew nothing of Peter's "primacy" or = "infallibility"=20 when he "withstood him to his face because he was to be blamed" (Gal = 2:11).

The Roman Catholic Church is presently involved in a=20 frenzied effort to explain its utterly fraudulent papal = claims in=20 the face of a growing awareness =97 both among its laity and clergy =97 = that such=20 claims are altogether false and impossible to defend by historical = data.=20 Had the author of the textbook mentioned these facts about the Petrine = theory,=20 it would have been all the more obvious to his readers =97 and to Roman = Catholics=20 most importantly =97 that Rome's papal claims, like all lies, have = their source=20 in "the father of lies," in Satan (cf. Jn 8:44).

 

7. Survey of Doctrine: Holy=20 Tradition.

1. How does Vladimir Lossky define = Tradition?

Lossky writes that "Tradition is the life of the Holy = Spirit in=20 the Church."

2. The textbook observes that Orthodox history = is marked=20 by a series of sudden political and national breaks. A) What, = according=20 to the author, was transformed by these sudden breaks, and B) what was = never=20 broken by them?

The sudden breaks include such things as the capture = of=20 Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem by the Arabs; the burning of Kiev by = the=20 Mongols; the two sacks of Constantinople; the subjugation of = southeastern=20 Europe, the Middle East and northern Africa by the Turks; and the = Communist=20 domination of Eastern Europe. A) These events changed the external = appearance=20 of the Orthodox world, yet B) they never broke the inward = continuity=20 of the Orthodox Church.

3. What distinctive characteristics did two = Orthodox=20 scholars attribute to the Orthodox Church?

Protopresbyter Georges Vasilievich Florovsky and = Panagiotis=20 Bratsiotis gave as the Church's distinctive characteristics its = changelessness,=20 its determination to remain loyal to the past, and its sense of living=20 continuity with the Church of ancient times. These characteristics do = not pass=20 unnoticed by outsiders. In fact, they are generally the first things = about=20 Orthodoxy that strike Western Christians. As an English Roman Catholic = wrote to=20 a newspaper:

We are all sick to death of socialists and = progressives alike=20 with their reforming [in the Latin Church]. It is indeed something to = thank God=20 that the Eastern Orthodox Churches have refused to change anything and = have=20 stuck to the old Liturgies [Quoted in Archpriest Alexey Young, = Christianity=20 or the Papacy?, p. 19].

4. In what one word is the idea of the living = continuity=20 of Orthodoxy summed up?

It is summed up in the word Tradition, also = called=20 Sacred Apostolic Tradition as the most important and fundamental part of = it=20 comes from the Apostles. (When Tradition is capitalized in this = work, it=20 refers to Christian Tradition rather than human traditions).

5. The textbook gives a quote from the reply = of the=20 Eastern patriarchs to the non-jurors. Write out that quote.

The patriarchs wrote: "We preserve the doctrine of = the Lord=20 uncorrupted, and firmly adhere to the faith He delivered to us, and keep = it free=20 from blemish and diminution, as a royal treasure, and a monument of = great price,=20 neither adding anything, nor taking anything from it." [Letter of=20 1718].

6. Having given the Oxford Dictionary = definition of=20 tradition, the textbook continues with an explanation of what Christian=20 Tradition is. How is it defined?

The textbook explains that:

Christian Tradition... is the faith which Jesus = Christ imparted=20 to the Apostles, and which since the Apostles' time has been handed down = from=20 generation to generation in the Church. But to an Orthodox Christian, = Tradition=20 means something more concrete and specific than this. It means the books = of the=20 Bible; it means the Creed; it means the decrees of the Ecumenical = Councils and=20 the writings of the Holy Fathers; it means the canons, the service = books, the=20 holy icons =97 in fact, the whole system of doctrine, Church government, = worship=20 and art which Orthodoxy has articulated over the ages.

7. Why is it wrong to consider or speak of = Tradition and=20 Scripture as two different things?

In his book Orthodox Tradition and Modernism, = Dr.=20 Constantine Cavarnos gives a much more thorough examination of this = matter than=20 the textbook for this course. The professor makes the important point = that the=20 term Tradition has been used both in a narrow sense and in = a=20 broad sense.

In the narrow sense, Tradition designates only = the=20 unwritten divine word of Apostolic preaching that was not written = in Holy=20 Scripture, but was preserved in the Church and was written in the = Proceedings of=20 the Synods and in the books of the Holy Fathers. On the other hand, in = the=20 broad sense, Tradition includes only the unwritten = divine=20 word of Apostolic preaching and the written divine word (sc., the Old = and New=20 Testaments). It is in the broad sense that the Apostle Paul uses the = word when=20 he instructs: "Brethren, stand firm and hold to the traditions which you = were=20 taught by us, either by word of mouth or letter" (2 Thes = 2:15).

Dr. Cavarnos explains that before the canon of the = New=20 Testament was formed, the Fathers and teachers of the Church used the = term=20 Tradition in the broad sense. However, he says, "Since the = time=20 that the canon of the New Testament was formed, the term Tradition is = usually=20 employed in the narrower sense, to designate the unwritten divine = work of=20 Apostolic preaching" [p. 10].

Thus, while the narrow sense became the norm, it is = not shown=20 that this narrow sense is used exclusively. Question seven indicates = that the=20 broad usage (according to the distinction Cavarnos makes) is preferable, = and the=20 quotation in the previous answer shows that the textbook adheres to the = broad=20 understanding. When one thinks in this broader sense, Scripture and = Tradition=20 are not thought of as two different sources of the Christian faith, for = there is=20 only one source: Tradition. Scripture exists within = Tradition and=20 forms a part of Tradition.

8. What elements of Tradition does Orthodoxy = consider to=20 be absolute, unchanging and not subject to revision or being = cancelled?

As noted in chapter two, the Bible, the Creed, and = the=20 doctrinal definitions handed down by the Ecumenical Councils are = infallible. All=20 of them have a permanent and irrevocable authority, one that is not = subject to=20 being revised or canceled.

9. The textbook makes a distinction between = Tradition=20 (being the actual content of Sacred Tradition) and = tradition (long=20 established customs). It points out that we must be prepared to = critically=20 examine our traditions (customs) and distinguish Tradition and=20 tradition. A) Give a source of Scripture which warns us against = making=20 dogma of Tradition (long used customs), and a passage of Scripture which = commands us to preserve faithfully the Apostolic Tradition. B) What two = groups=20 fell into extremism in this matter, and into what errors did their = extremism=20 lead them?

Many people who recognize the authority of Sacred = Scripture=20 regard Sacred Tradition with skepticism, even disdain. Part of the = reason for=20 this rejection stems from the fact that the word tradition carries the = meaning=20 of custom or habit, something which is not binding.

Fr. John Whiteford explains that the word translated = as=20 tradition in the New Testament is the Greek word = paradosis, which=20 means that which is transmitted or delivered. Scripture uses the = word in=20 two ways, and to emphasize the important distinction between = these two=20 ways, the textbook variously uppercases and lowercases the first letter = of the=20 word.

Fr. John shows that paradosis is first used = when=20 referring negatively to the false teachings of the Pharisees, because = they=20 disregarded the divine Tradition, the divine teaching, while the = observed human=20 traditions that contradicted God's law. Christ told them: "Ye leave the=20 commandments of God, and hold fast to the traditions of men" (Mk 7:8, = also=20 7:3,5). Also, in saying "making the word of God of none effect through = your=20 tradition, which you have delivered," Christ was referring to pernicious = and=20 unlawful customs such as corban. When a man did not want to support his = elderly=20 parents, he made a false promise before the Pharisees that he would = place his=20 estate and possessions into corban, that is, that he would give it away = as a=20 sacrifice to God. Through this act, he was considered to have made a = sacrifice=20 to God, although in actual fact, he would give part of his estate to the = Pharisees and retain the rest for himself, thereby leaving his elderly = parents=20 to the winds of fate. There were many such deplorable and unlawful = traditions=20 among the Pharisees, for Christ told them: "And many such like things do = ye." It=20 was these man-made traditions that Christ condemned by His words, = not=20 Sacred Tradition, which never contradicts divine commandments. (On the = contrary,=20 Tradition confirms and strengthens them). St. Paul likewise = distinguishes=20 between these two kinds of tradition, human and sacred. Concerning human = traditions, he writes to the Colossians: "See to it that no one makes a = prey of=20 you by philosophy and empty deceit, according to the elemental spirits = of the=20 universe, and not according to Christ" (Col 2:8).

The same word paradosis, Fr. John continues, = is used in=20 a second sense to refer to authoritative Christian teaching, the = essential=20 Christian message (cf. 1 Cor 11:2, 2 Thes 2:15). Scripture commands = the=20 faithful to preserve Apostolic Tradition. As the Apostle Paul warns: = "Guard the=20 deposit" (1 Tim 6:20). Again to Timothy he writes: "And the things that = thou=20 hast heard of me among many witnesses, the same commit thou to faithful = men, who=20 shall be able to teach others also" (2 Tim 2:22). Also referring to = Christian=20 Tradition, the same Apostle states: "I praise you, brethren, that you = remember=20 me in all things and hold fast to the traditions [paradoseis] = just as I=20 delivered [paredoka] them to you" (1 Cor 11:2). He further = instructs:=20 "Now we command you, brethren ... that ye keep away from any brother who = is=20 living in idleness and not in accord with the tradition that ye have = received=20 from us" (1 Tim 3:6). Thus, Sacred Scripture legitimatizes Sacred = Tradition=20 and gives authority to it.

What makes the tradition of the Pharisees false and = that of the=20 Church true is the source. Christ made it clear what the source = was of=20 the traditions of the Pharisees was when He called them "the traditions = of men"=20 (Mk 7:8).

As for St. Paul, just where did he get these = traditions in the=20 first place? "I received from the Lord that which I delivered = [paredoka]=20 to you" (1 Cor 11:23).

From these and other scriptural passages that make a = clear=20 distinction between Sacred Tradition and human tradition, Sacred = Tradition is=20 placed on an incomparably higher level than human tradition. Sacred = Tradition=20 originates from God and is divine revelation, whereas human traditions = originate=20 from mankind and are the products of the human mind. Sacred = Tradition was=20 given to men by God, either directly (by Christ), or = indirectly=20 (through the prophets and Apostles). Sacred Tradition's incomparable = superiority is due to its revelatory character.

While Sacred Scripture puts forth Sacred Tradition as = divine=20 and consequently a sure guide to our life, it demotes human tradition. = It shows=20 that we should always observe Sacred Tradition, whereas one should break = with=20 human tradition (human teaching and customs) whenever the latter is = opposed to=20 Sacred Tradition. An example is the evil practice of telling fortunes on = the eve=20 of Theophany and the New Year. The Church has persistently condemned and = battled=20 against this kind of tradition, and it always will.

The above mentioned Fr. John Whiteford, a former = Protestant=20 minister who is not an Orthodox priest, understands the trouble that = Protestants=20 have with Tradition, and he goes on to explain it further. He notes = that:

What the Orthodox Church refers to when it speaks of = the=20 Apostolic Tradition is "the faith once delivered [paradotheise] = unto the=20 saints" (Jude 1:3). Its source is Christ, and it was delivered = personally by Him=20 to the Apostles through all that He said and did =97 which, if it all = were written=20 down, "the world itself could not contain the books that should be = written" (Jn=20 21:25). The Apostles in turn delivered this Tradition to the entire = Church. And=20 the Church, being the repository of this treasure, thus became "the = pillar and=20 ground of the Truth" (1 Tim 3:15).

The testimony of the New Testament is clear on this = point: the=20 early Christians had both oral and written traditions which they = received from=20 Christ through the Apostles. For written tradition they at first had = only=20 portions =97 one local Church had an epistle, another perhaps a Gospel. = Gradually=20 these writings were gathered together into collections, and ultimately, = under=20 the guidance of the Holy Spirit in the Church, they became the New = Testament.=20 And how did these early Christians know which books were authentic and = which=20 were not =97 for... there were numerous spurious epistles and gospels = claimed by=20 heretics to have been written by the Apostles? It was the Apostolic = Tradition=20 that aided the Church in making this determination.

Protestants react violently to the idea of Holy = Tradition=20 simply because the only form of it they have generally encountered is = the=20 distorted concept of tradition found in Roman Catholicism. Contrary to = the Roman=20 view of tradition =97 which is personified by the pope, and develops new = dogmas=20 without Apostolic foundation, such as papal infallibility =97 the = Orthodox do not=20 believe Tradition changes or "develops."

Certainly when the Church is faced with a heresy, it = may be=20 forced to define more precisely the difference between truth and error; = but the=20 Truth is never altered. It may be said that Tradition expands or = matures, but=20 only in the sense that as the Church moves through history, it does not = forget=20 its experiences along the way. It remembers the saints that arise in it, = and it=20 preserves the writings of those who have accurately stated its faith. = But the=20 faith itself was "once delivered unto the saints" [Jude 1:3. Sola = Scriptura:=20 an Orthodox Analysis of the Cornerstone of Reformation Theology, pp. = 17-19;=20 emphasis added].

With regard to the second part of the question, both = the Old=20 Believers and the so-called Living Church fell into extremism in = their=20 views on Sacred Tradition and human tradition. The Old Believers (Old = Ritualists=20 is more accurate) were a group in Russia who went into schism from the = Russian=20 Church over liturgical reforms introduced in the mid-seventeenth = century. This=20 group fell into extreme conservatism which would allow no changes in = tradition,=20 that is, in non-essential customs inherited from the past. The Living = Church, on=20 the other hand, was a schismatic organization approved and supported by = the=20 Communist regime, fell into a modernism or theological liberalism which = struck=20 at the very roots of Sacred Tradition. The believers of crucified Russia = rejected the Living Church decisively.

10. What divine promise forms the basis of the = Orthodox=20 devotion to Holy Tradition?

The divine promise is Christ's promise that "when = the Spirit=20 of Truth has come, He will guide you in all truth" (Jn 16:13).

11. Summarize the source and meaning of Holy=20 Tradition.

Holy Tradition originates from God. Dr. Constantine = Cavarnos=20 explains that it is a divine revelation, that is, a = supernatural=20 disclosure by God to people of otherwise unknowable truths. The same = writer=20 adds that this revelation is shown in Old Testament phrases such as = "Thus saith=20 the Lord," "And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying." In the New Testament, = this=20 character of divine revelation appears not only in the Gospels, where = Christ=20 speaks, but also in the Revelation of St. John, which begins with the = words:=20 "The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him," and in the Acts of = the=20 Apostles and the epistles, especially those of St. Paul. Paul often = stresses=20 that his teaching is not his own, nor of the wise of the world, but is = teaching=20 from God. To the Corinthians he writes: "Yet we speak wisdom... not that = of this=20 age nor of the rulers of this age, who are doomed to perish; but we = speak the=20 wisdom of God that is a mystery and hidden... which God has revealed to = us=20 through His Spirit" (1 Cor 2:6-10).

Dr. Cavarnos notes that it is precisely this = revelatory=20 character that distinguishes Christianity from the various and countless = systems=20 that the human intellect has devised =97 religious, philosophical, = ethical and=20 social systems. Elder Cleopa of Romania states the same and stresses = that the=20 teachings of the Church of Christ are safeguarded by the Holy Spirit and = cannot=20 err, and that the Founder of the Church, Christ, governs it in an unseen = way=20 until the end of the ages. Elsewhere the elder notes that Holy Tradition = is=20 God-given and that it is the life of the Church in the Holy Spirit. He = adds=20 that:

Holy Tradition is neither a tradition of men, nor a = philosophy,=20 nor some kind of trickery, but is the word of God that He delivered to = us=20 personally.... Some counsel weaker Christians to slander and abandon the = Apostolic and Evangelical traditions, without understanding that Holy = Scripture=20 itself is a fruit of the Holy Spirit that grew out of the roots and tree = of Holy=20 Tradition [The Truth of Our Faith, pp. 56-57].

Elder Cleopa likewise explains that:

The Church of Christ determined the truths of the = faith=20 according to the long course of Tradition, through the teachings and = canons of=20 the holy Ecumenical Councils, decrees and the Symbol of Faith [the = Creed], and=20 with confessions [of faith] by holy and wonderworking hierarchs such as = were=20 made at the many local synods which have been held continuously since = the days=20 of old. At these synods the authenticity and genuineness of the holy = Orthodox=20 faith was firmly established, primarily therein where it was attacked by = the=20 existing heresies of the time. From the totality of such synods appears = the=20 irrevocable and inalterable content of Holy Tradition. This is = understood when=20 you examine closely the essence of the following conditions:

When a tradition does not fulfill these stipulations, = it cannot=20 be considered true and holy, and consequently cannot be considered = admissible or=20 fit to be observed [Ibid., p. 58].

The same elder concludes that:

We must uphold with great reverence and godliness = Holy=20 Tradition since all that is needful to effect our salvation is not found = within=20 Holy Scripture. Holy Scripture instructs us to do many things; however, = it does=20 not make manifest to us the light. For example, it instructs us to be = baptized,=20 but it doesn't explain to us the method. Likewise, it guides us to = confess our=20 sins, receive Communion, be crowned (married) =97 but nowhere does it = specify the=20 rite of carrying out these Mysterion (Sacraments). Furthermore, = it=20 instructs us to pray, but doesn't tell us how, where and when.... Where = in=20 Scripture are we told the words of the epiclesis (invocation) of the = Holy Spirit=20 for the sanctification of the all-holy Mysteries? Which teaching from = Holy=20 Scripture instructs us to bless the water of Baptism and the holy = Unction of=20 holy Chrismation? Which passage in Scripture teaches us about the = threefold=20 denunciation and the renunciations of Satan before holy Baptism? The = prayer of=20 glorification toward the Holy Trinity =97 "Glory to the Father and to = the Son and=20 to the Holy Spirit" =97 from which passage did it come to us?

Posing these questions to the slanderer of Tradition, = St. Basil=20 the Great says: "If we consent to abandon the unwritten traditions on = the=20 pretext that they don't have great worth, we err in great and elevated = matters,=20 rejecting the Gospel."

The ordering, therefore, by which the Church upholds = the=20 unwritten is: whatever is of Apostolic descent and is practiced by the = Fathers=20 receives the validity of Tradition and has the power of law in the = Church of=20 Christ. Accordingly, therefore, it must be safeguarded since its = importance and=20 benefit springs from the relationship that exists between it and Holy = Scripture.=20 It is true that both have remained within a reciprocal unity and = intimate=20 relationship =97 a relationship based on the fact that both comprise the = holy=20 revelation of God for us are the fount and source of Revelation. Hence, = it is=20 not possible for there to exist an inner contradiction between the two = or for us=20 to exclude one from the other. Holy Scripture possesses its unique = witness of=20 the scriptural canon and its dogmatic character (its divine inspiration) = only in=20 and with Holy Tradition, while Holy Tradition is able to prove the = authenticity=20 of its truth only together with Holy Scripture [Ibid., pp. = 64-65].

As previously noted, according to the broader sense = of the term=20 Tradition, Holy Scripture is a part of Tradition. These two parts = of=20 Tradition =97 the written and unwritten word =97 are considered = by the=20 Ecumenical Councils and the Holy Fathers to be of equal = authority. As St. Basil the Great instructs:

Of the dogmas and proclamations preserved in the = Church, some=20 we possess from written teaching, while others we have received in = secret from=20 the Tradition of the Apostles; these have the same validity for = true=20 religion [On the Holy Spirit, 27, PG 32:188A; emphasis = added].

St. John Chrysostom likewise writes:

[The Apostles] have not handed down everything in = writing, but=20 have also delivered many things in unwritten form. The former and latter = are=20 equally trustworthy, and so we also consider the [unwritten] = Tradition of=20 the Church to be trustworthy. It is Tradition =97 seek no further [On = 2=20 Thessalonians, Homily 4, PG 62:488; emphasis added].

Also bearing special witness to the existence of a = rich=20 Apostolic Tradition are the words of St. John the Theologian:

And there are also many other things which Jesus did, = that=20 which, if they should be written every one, I suppose that even the = world itself=20 could not contain the books that should be written. =97 Jn 21:25

Patristic writings indicate what the content = is of the=20 unwritten Apostolic Tradition. St. Basil the Great mentions: (1) that we = make=20 the sign of the Cross; (2) that we look to the east when we pray; (3) = that we do=20 not kneel in our prayers on Sunday throughout Pentecost; (4) that each = person is=20 baptized with three immersions and emersions; (5) the renunciation of = Satan and=20 his angels in Baptism; (6) the confession of faith in Father, Son and = Holy=20 Spirit, word for word in this way; and (7) the words which the priest = utters at=20 the change of the bread and wine of the Divine Eucharist [On the Holy = Spirit, chap. 27, PG 32:188-89, 192-93].

St. Dionysius the Aeropagite (+96), a disciple of the = Apostle=20 Paul (Acts 17:34) and the first bishop of Athens, similarly indicates = that=20 secret prayers, which sanctify and accomplish the Holy Mysteries = (Sacraments),=20 are a part of the unwritten Tradition. He writes:

It is not permitted to interpret in writing the = consecrating=20 invocations or their mystical meaning, or to bring out from secrecy to = the=20 public the powers worked by God in them; but as our Sacred Tradition = holds, when=20 you have learned them thoroughly by secret instructions... you will be = uplifted=20 by the illumination which is originative of perfection toward the = highest=20 knowledge of them [Concerning the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, 1, PG = 3:565C].

In his defense of holy icons, St. John of Damascus = writes that=20 it is Apostolic Tradition that we make icons of Christ and the saints, = and that=20 we venerate them by honoring them. He gives other examples of the = unwritten=20 Tradition of the Holy Apostles as well: the veneration of the Cross and = the=20 practice of turning to the east when praying, and he states that "the = Apostles=20 have handed down many things to us unwritten." [Exact Exposition of = the=20 Orthodox Faith, IV.16, PG 94:1172C-1173B; cf. 1304-05.] The Holy = Fathers=20 likewise give other examples of the unwritten Tradition: the fast on = Wednesday=20 and Friday, the composition of the services (especially the Divine = Liturgy), the=20 manner of celebrating the Holy Mysteries, and the practice of having = memorial=20 services to commemorate the faithful reposed.

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky writes that the = ancient=20 Church carefully guarded the inward life of the Church from those = outside it.=20 The Holy Mysteries were secret, being kept from non-Christians. When = these=20 Mysteries were performed =97 Baptism and the Eucharist =97 those outside = the Church=20 were not present; the order of the services was not written down, but = was only=20 transmitted orally; and in what was preserved in secret was contained = the=20 essential side of the faith.

During the era of freedom and triumph of the Church = in the=20 fourth century, however, almost all of the Tradition received a written = form and=20 is now preserved in the literature of the Church, which comprises a = supplement=20 to the Holy Scriptures. The same Fr. Michael notes that the following = are=20 included in this sacred ancient Tradition: (1) the most ancient record = of the=20 Church, the Canons of the Holy Apostles; (2) the Symbols of Faith = of the=20 ancient local Churches; (3) the ancient Liturgies, the rite of Baptism = and other=20 ancient prayers; (4) the ancient Acts of the Christian Martyrs. The Acts = of the=20 Martyrs did not enter into use by the faithful until they had been = examined and=20 approved by the local bishops, and they were read at public gatherings = of=20 Christians under the supervision of the leaders of the Churches. In them = is seen=20 the confession of the All-Holy Consubstantial Trinity, the Divinity of = the Lord=20 Jesus Christ, examples of the invocation of the saints, of belief in the = conscious life of those who had reposed in Christ, and much else; (5) = the=20 ancient records of the history of the Church, especially the book of = Eusebius=20 Pamphilus, Bishop of Caesarea, where there are gathered many ancient = traditions=20 of rite and dogma =97 in particular, there is given the canon of the = sacred books=20 of the Old and New Testaments; (6) the works of the ancient Fathers and = teachers=20 of the Church; and finally, (7) the very spirit of the Church's life, = the=20 preservation of faithfulness to all her foundations which come from the = Holy=20 Apostles.

Fr. Michael writes that the witness of Sacred = Tradition is=20 indispensable for our certainty that all of the books of Sacred = Scripture have=20 been handed down to us from Apostolic times and are of Apostolic origin. = Sacred=20 Tradition is also necessary for the correct understanding of separate = passages=20 of Sacred Scripture, and for refuting heretical reinterpretations of it, = and, in=20 general, so as to avoid superficial, one-sided, and sometimes even = prejudiced=20 and false interpretations of it. Again, Fr. Michael notes, Sacred = Tradition is=20 necessary because some truths of faith are expressed in a completely = definite=20 form in Scripture, while others are not entirely clear and precise and = therefore=20 demand confirmation by Sacred Tradition. Lastly, Sacred Scripture (part = of=20 Sacred Tradition) is valuable because from it, we see how the whole = order of=20 Church organization, the canons, the divine services and rites, are = rooted in=20 and founded upon the way of life of the ancient Church. Therefore, Fr. = Michael=20 concludes, the preservation of Tradition expresses the succession = of the=20 very essence of the Church.

Protestants deny the unwritten Sacred Tradition and = accept only=20 written Tradition, Holy Scripture. Commenting on this matter, Dr. = Constantine=20 Cavarnos gives this insight:

The rejection of unwritten Tradition on [the part of=20 Protestants] is a superficial and disastrous act. It is superficial = because it=20 disregards the fact that Holy Scripture, which the Protestants generally = accept=20 as divinely inspired, is a product of oral Tradition, since the writings = which=20 constitute Holy Scripture were handed down in the Church only around the = end of=20 the Apostolic period. In order to be consistent, they ought to discard = Holy=20 Scripture also as a divine revelation. Some Protestants have done this = and have=20 ceased to be Christians except in name. The denial of unwritten = Tradition on the=20 part of Protestantism was something ruinous, because it was the = rejection of a=20 treasury which is most necessary for salvation [Orthodox Tradition = and=20 Modernism, p. 13].

Protopriest Victor Potapov also addresses = Protestantism's=20 rejection of Apostolic Tradition. He explains that:

All of Protestantism's erroneous repudiations have as = a basis=20 the no less erroneous repudiation of Sacred Tradition by the = Protestants. They=20 strive to lean only on Sacred Scripture, not realizing to what extent = both=20 constitute one undivided whole. The Protestants arbitrarily limit the = action of=20 the Holy Spirit in the Church to Apostolic times, and that is why they = consider=20 all Church enactments that have appeared definitively after the Apostles = as=20 purely human. At the same time, they forget that even the very = composition of=20 the books comprising Sacred Scripture was determined considerably after = the=20 death of the Apostles. The Protestants also forget, or prefer not to = remember,=20 that the oral preaching of Christianity (that is, the oral Tradition) = preceded=20 the inscription of the New Testament.

Or, recognizing Sacred Tradition until the time of = the=20 definitive composition of the books of the New Testament in the second = century,=20 the Protestants have difficulty agreeing that the Holy Spirit, abiding = in the=20 Church as in the Body of Christ, did not cease to safeguard and vivify = the true=20 meaning of Sacred Scripture in the following centuries as well.

According to the Orthodox teaching, Sacred Scripture = is the=20 fundamental monument of Sacred Tradition and contains the fullness of = the divine=20 revelation. But the Holy Spirit, Who inspired the Apostles and = Evangelists in=20 their oral and written evangelism, guides the Holy Church even now, = promoting=20 the understanding and assimilation of Christ's Church [Orthodoxy and=20 Heterodoxy].

Even though Protestants do not acknowledge it to be = so, when=20 they accept the doctrine of the Holy Trinity and the doctrine of the two = natures=20 of Christ, they are unwittingly accepting the teaching of the = Orthodox=20 Church's Sacred Scriptures, and they are accepting the teaching = of=20 Orthodoxy's Holy Fathers, its oral Tradition, its Creed, and the = dogmatic=20 definitions propounded at its Seven Ecumenical Councils. These things = are so=20 because the New Testament came out of Orthodox Christianity's Holy = Tradition=20 and is inseparable from it. Thus, when Protestants refer to the = books of the=20 New Testament as "the Word of God," once again they are accepting = the=20 common practices of the Orthodox Church and the decisions of Orthodoxy's = Ecumenical Councils as to which books were included in the New Testament = and=20 which were rejected. Many Protestants are painfully unaware of how it is = that=20 Christians have come to believe in certain things. They do not realize = that the=20 history of doctrine is the history of the Orthodox Church, and = they do=20 not realize that without Orthodoxy's Ecumenical Councils, various other=20 doctrines assumed to be "biblical" would not have been effectively = defended=20 against heresy as they are not clearly stated in the Bible.

In the Roman Catholic view of Tradition, new dogmas=20 without Apostolic foundation are developed, such as the heresy of = papal=20 infallibility. Rome's scholastic theology teaches that through the ages = there is=20 a greater deepening of the dogmas of the faith and that they are still=20 developing further. This teaching is not the Orthodox teaching. The = Orthodox=20 understanding of Tradition =97 and noteworthy, it is the understanding = that=20 prevailed earlier in the Latin Church prior to its separation = from the=20 ancient Apostolic Church in 1054 =97 is that Tradition is unchanging = and does=20 not "develop" (inasmuch as God does not change), and that Tradition = is known=20 by its catholicity (or universality), that is, that it is = something=20 accepted everywhere in the Church. On the day of Pentecost, the Apostles = reached=20 deification, experienced revelation, and so reached the whole Truth.=20 Revelation is not altered with the passage of time. As = Protopresbyter=20 Michael Pomazansky explains:

The Church's consciousness from the Apostles down to = the end of=20 the Church's life, being guided by the same Holy Spirit, in its essence = is one=20 and the same. Christian teaching and the scope of divine revelation are=20 unchanging. The Church's teaching of faith does not develop, and the = Church's=20 awareness of itself, with the course of the centuries, does not become = higher,=20 deeper, and broader than it was among the Apostles. There is nothing to = add to=20 the teaching of faith handed down by the Apostles. Although the Church = is always=20 guided by the Holy Spirit, still we do not see in the history of the = Church, and=20 we do not expect, new dogmatic revelations [Orthodox Dogmatic = Theology,=20 pp. 357-58].

The Apostle to the nations commands: "Therefore, = brethren,=20 stand fast, and hold the traditions which ye have been taught, whether = by word,=20 or our epistle" (2 Thes 2:15). Only the Orthodox Church has = remained a=20 faithful keeper of Tradition and has preserved the sacred deposit = (1 Tim=20 6:20 and 2 Tim 1:14) as the Apostles have handed it down. Tradition = in=20 Orthodoxy has a living continuity with the Church of ancient times and = has been=20 handed down to us as a treasure from generation to generation, from the = time of=20 the Apostles. Each generation receives and guards this inheritance for = future=20 generations, neither adding anything to it, nor taking anything away. = The=20 Holy Fathers have emphasized this loyalty to Tradition, as have Orthodox = theologians. As Basil Ioannidis, former professor at the Universities of = Athens=20 and Thessalonica, states:

The Orthodox Church possesses full and unaltered the = teaching=20 and the tradition of the one, ancient and undivided Church.... She has = not=20 altered anything of what she has received [Quoted in Constantine = Cavarnos,=20 Orthodox Tradition and Modernism, p. 14].

Importantly, distinguished theologians of Western = Christianity=20 admit to the traditional character of the Orthodox Church. E. Seeberg, a = Protestant professor at the University of Berlin, writes:

The Orthodox Church is the one Church, the Catholic = Church, the=20 Apostolic Church. She has remained faithful to the Apostolic teaching = and the=20 Apostolic canons, and through uninterrupted succession has preserved=20 undiminished the connection to the Apostles [Ibid.].

The Roman Catholic theologian Julius Tyciak adds:

For the Eastern Church, Tradition is everything. She = wants to=20 be the Church of Tradition, the Church of the ancient times = [Ibid.].

Dr. Constantine Cavarnos explains that it is to = the=20 Ecumenical Councils and Holy Fathers that we owe the preservation and = guarding=20 of Sacred Tradition, which the Lord gave, and the Apostles proclaimed, = and upon=20 which the Orthodox Church is founded. The Ecumenical Councils made = wide use=20 of Apostolic Tradition, stressing its values and taking measures to = preserve and=20 proclaim it in their definitions. Dr. Cavarnos further explains that the = Holy=20 Fathers also energetically contended for the preservation and = predominance of=20 the Apostolic Tradition without additions or subtractions. A sizeable = number of=20 the Fathers contended through the Ecumenical Councils. Characteristic of = the=20 line that the Fathers maintained in this regard are the words of St. = Athanasius=20 the Great: "I have taught according to the Apostolic faith handed down = to us by=20 the Fathers, devising nothing outside it" [Ibid].

Dr. Cavarnos points out that an astonishing concord = exists in=20 the teaching of the Greek Fathers. This harmony stems from the fact that = they=20 completely assimilated Sacred Tradition and followed the vital principle = of=20 transmitting it without modernization, without external inventions. The = eminent=20 eighteenth-century theologian Eugenios Voulgaris emphasized this accord = among=20 the Fathers in his observation that:

The Fathers and teachers of our Church agree on all = the dogmas,=20 are unanimous on all, and differ on none, but form a harmonious melody = in the=20 Church as from many voices, precisely because the Truth is one, and = discord=20 never enters into it. Where there is the illumination and operation of = the Holy=20 Spirit, there is concord [Ibid., pp. 14-15].

Dr. Cavarnos goes on to note that while Orthodoxy has = always=20 seen its unchanging persistence in Sacred Tradition as its boast, = Western=20 Christians (with some exceptions) have looked upon this persistence as a = sign of=20 decline, a sign of deficiency in its inner life. Protestants, for = example, have=20 likened Orthodoxy to a "petrified mummy." However, such an accusation = shows to=20 what degree Western Christians confuse the revealed faith with = different=20 worldly systems, with the different human contrivances and = creations. Since=20 in the sciences and crafts there is a continual development and = perfection, the=20 heterodox feel the same thing should happen in the Christian religion, = that here=20 too there should be a continuous change, revision and replacement of the = old=20 with the new =97 in a word, modernization. Seeing Christianity = from a=20 rationalistic standpoint, they do not understand its revelatory=20 character, but demote it to the level of those systems that the human = mind has formed on the basis of human reason and the observation of = the five=20 senses. Speaking against this error in 1756, Eugenics Voulgaris = wrote:

The faith does not alter with the times, it does not=20 deteriorate from circumstances, it does not grow old, but remains always = the=20 same, both old and new. Why do these new theologians [the Roman = Catholics] dare=20 to change what cannot be changed? We know that the dogmas of faith are = more=20 dubious the newer they are, and more genuine and certain the older they = are,=20 just as the farther away waters are from their sources the more dirty = and turbid=20 they are, and the closer they are to their sources the purer they are=20 [Ibid., p. 16].

In 1820, Adamantios Koraes observed:

[Our] religion, which is above reason, does not = resemble the=20 rational sciences or arts. [These] sciences and arts, the work of the = human=20 mind, are perfected with the progress of time, insofar as its rational = power is=20 perfected by philosophy. [Christianity], the work of God, is, on the = contrary,=20 corrupted, insofar as it is separated in time from its first = proclamation, if=20 its leaders do not take care to guard it intact, as a deposit entrusted = to them=20 by its Author [Ibid].

Placing similar emphasis on the divine provenance of = the=20 Orthodox faith and excluding innovations, Neophytos Doukas wrote in 1845 = that:

The things of the Church taught and enacted by the = Holy=20 Apostles, and by the Holy Fathers gathered together in the [seven] = Synods, since=20 they were illumined by the All-Holy Spirit, are unalterable; no one can = add or=20 subtract anything from them, or transform them.... Just as the Divine = Legislator=20 dictated them many years ago, so they should remain unchanged unto all = ages=20 [Ibid].

Dr. Cavarnos explains that the immobility of death = did not=20 accompany Orthodoxy's strict adherence to Tradition as Western = Christians=20 maintained it would. On the contrary, it brought the vibrancy of life in = Christ.=20 In an 1884 letter to the French Jansenist Pierre Leclerc, Voulgaris = spoke about=20 the martyrs and other saints, equal to the ancients, and how Orthodoxy = possesses=20 the bounty of miracles unceasingly. He continued: "Our Church is = continuously=20 glorified and made wondrous by God, no less after the Schism than before = it, and=20 up to our times" [Ibid., p. 17].

Also proclaiming Orthodoxy's great vibrancy of life = was a=20 serious student of Orthodoxy, John Brownlie, who was a distinguished = Anglican=20 hymnologist. He made the following observations:

They tell us that the Greek Church is a dead Church = without=20 missionary zeal. But how can a Church be characterized as not = missionary, which=20 stretched our her hands to the Far East, giving the blessings of the = Gospel to=20 the Tartars and the Indians; in a southerly direction, putting up the = Cross in=20 Arabia, Persia and Egypt; and in a northerly direction, spreading the = light to=20 the ends of Siberia? How can a Church be called dead, which engaged in=20 hand-to-hand combat with idolatry, not only in the first centuries, but = also in=20 the last six centuries, under the abominable superstition of the Turks,=20 preserving her faith in Christ throughout this interval? No Church = offered so=20 many martyrs to the Christian faith.... If under the persistent, = ceaseless=20 persecution =97 not for generations, but for centuries =97 a Church can = maintain her=20 faith and preserve her witness, then the term dead cannot be = applied to=20 her [Ibid].

Thus, Professor Cavarnos continues, the strict = perseverance in=20 Tradition does not at all result in the deadening of the Church. On the=20 contrary, it is absolutely necessary for the preservation and = fruitfulness of=20 the life of the Church. The professor further observes that it is the=20 disregard and abandonment of Tradition that causes a = slackening of=20 life and the gradual decomposition of a Church. The history of the = Western=20 Church gives the most persuasive witness to this fact, for there, one=20 novelty and modernization after another was introduced, = chiefly=20 from the time of the Great Schism of 1054 and after. The breaking away = of the=20 Western Church from the Apostolic Church was the result of the Western = Church's=20 innovations. The subsequent revolution of the Protestants, which = split=20 the Western Church into warring parties, took place because of the = downfall of=20 the Western Church, a downfall that occurred as a direct consequence of = its=20 distortion of Sacred Tradition.

Notwithstanding that downfall, the introduction of = innovations=20 and novelties continued in the West. At the end of the nineteenth = century, for=20 instance, from amidst the decaying ruins of Western Christianity, a = movement=20 appeared in the bosom of the Roman Catholic Church. This was the = movement of=20 Modernism, or Modernization, which had as its goal the=20 "renovation" of Christian teaching by adapting it to contemporary = worldly=20 thought. The representatives of this movement inflicted incredible = damage on=20 Christian doctrine, thinking that through this means they would revivify = their=20 Church. However, the result of this discarding truths of the faith and = making=20 "adaptations" was that large numbers of people became unbelievers and = stopped=20 going to church.

Protestantism, for its part in having denied = Tradition, divided=20 into myriad splinter groups. All the differing confessional groups = within=20 Protestantism are the result of differing innovations and adaptations to = each=20 "contemporary spirit."

Fr. John Whiteford explains that in the writings of = the Holy=20 Fathers, innovation and novelty are synonymous with = heresy,=20 for the faith which was "once delivered to the saints" (Jude 1:3) = does not=20 change. Thus, if something is at variance with what the Church has = believed=20 always (since Apostolic times), it cannot be the authentic = teaching of=20 the Church. As the Apostle Paul admonished:

Jesus Christ: the same yesterday, and today, and = forever. Be=20 not carried about with divers and strange doctrines (Heb 13:8-9).

Fr. John continues, noting that if any belief has not = been=20 received by the Church in its history, then this is heresy, which = is like=20 some foreign contagion introduced into the body of the Church. = The Church=20 in turn reacts, as any body with a healthy immune system would react, to = ward=20 off these novel diseases.

To summarize, Sacred Tradition is the Tradition which = comes=20 from the ancient Church of Apostolic times. It is the faith that Christ = imparted=20 to the Apostles, the central Christian message, which from the Apostles' = time=20 has been handed down unchanged from generation to generation of Orthodox = Christians. Sacred Tradition is the witness of the Holy Spirit, and it = is the=20 life of the Church as it is inspired by the Holy Spirit, for as Christ = promised,=20 the Holy Spirit is to guide the Church in Truth. Apostolic Tradition is = found in=20 what the Church has believed everywhere, always (since Apostolic times = and=20 throughout history), and by all. Therein is the Truth.

12. List the seven written or external = expressions of=20 Tradition given in the textbook.

The textbook explains that these two expressions of = Tradition=20 are preeminent and hold first place. Also included in Tradition are:

13. From where does the Bible ultimately derive its=20 authority?

The Bible was written within a time period of close = to 1,500=20 years =97 that is, from Moses (1,400 years before Christ), until the = writer of the=20 Apocalypse, St. John the Theologian (nearly 100 years after Christ). A = Romanian=20 priest explains that the Orthodox Church recognizes that together with = the=20 entire content of Apostolic preaching, Sacred Scripture was produced = under=20 divine inspiration. He further expounds that Scripture is the result of = a=20 collaboration of a divine-human synergism whose internal working ever = remains a=20 mystery. The Bible's principal author is God Himself, but it was written = down by=20 divinely inspired sacred writers. As other writers explain, Scripture = was=20 produced by the energy of the Holy Spirit, for "all Scripture is = given by the=20 inspiration of God" (2 Tim 3:16). Thus, the words of Scripture are = the words=20 of the Holy Spirit.

The Bible ultimately derives its authority from the = Orthodox=20 Church, which is the Body of Christ (Eph 1:23, 5:23) and the pillar and = ground=20 of the Truth (1 Tim 3:15). The Orthodox Church is the means by which God = wrote the Scriptures. In other words, the Holy Spirit inspired = the=20 prophets and Apostles to author the various books of the Bible. = Moreover,=20 the Orthodox Church is the means by which God preserved the = Scriptures.=20 That is, the Holy Spirit inspired Orthodoxy's Holy Fathers to = canonize=20 Scripture, or to determine which books form a part of Scripture. And = again, the=20 Holy Spirit continually inspired the Church to interpret = Scripture "for=20 doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness" = (2 Tim.=20 3:16).

Christ is the center of the whole of Holy Scripture, = both the=20 Old and New Testaments. He is the axis around which all Scripture turns, = the=20 alpha and the omega. About Him God the Father speaks, as do angels, = Apostles,=20 patriarchs, prophets, kings and righteous ones. The prophetic messages = of the=20 Old Testament all proclaim that the Messiah is coming, the Savior and = Redeemer=20 of the world. The books of the New Testament contain the saving message, = and its=20 teachings are summarized in the Gospel message that the Savior has come = and that=20 He is Christ. Lastly, in the last book of the New Testament Scriptures = is the=20 stirring message that Christ will come again to judge humanity. All that = the=20 writers of Scripture said and arranged together gives a wondrous picture = of our=20 Lord Jesus Christ. They did so because God illuminated them and guided = them to=20 write down their prophecies.

As noted in chapter one, the Orthodox Church is = subdivided into=20 the Old Testament and the New Testament, although they both constitute = one=20 organic whole representing the divine plan for the salvation of mankind. = Thus,=20 it is incorrect to maintain that the modern Jewish religion is=20 responsible for the Old Testament Scriptures, for modern Judaism is not = the same=20 religion as the Old Testament religion. Modern Judaism has changed. The = Old=20 Testament is a foreshadowing of the New Testament, and the true Jews of = the Old=20 Testament are a foreshadowing of Christians, for the Old Testament Jews = lived=20 spiritually in expectation of Christ the Saviour, the Messiah. (On the = other=20 hand, the enemies of the Jews in the Old Testament are the foreshadowing = of=20 contemporary Judaism, the very foundation of that religion being a = rejection of=20 Christ).

Concerning the Old Testament Scriptures, = Protopresbyter Michael=20 Pomazansky makes the following important notations:

In accepting the Old Testament Sacred Scriptures, the = Church=20 has shown that she is the heir of the Old Testament Church =97 not the = national=20 aspect of Judaism, but of the religious content of the Old Testament. In = this=20 heritage, some things have an eternal significance and value, but others = have=20 ceased to exist and are significant only as recollections of the past = and for=20 edification as prototypes, as, for example, the regulations concerning = the=20 tabernacle and sacrifices, and the prescriptions for the Israelites' = daily=20 conduct. Therefore, the Church makes use of her Old Testament heritage = quite=20 authoritatively, in accordance with her understanding of the world, = which is=20 more complete than and superior to that of ancient Israel ["The Old = Testament in=20 the New Testament Church," Selected Essays, p. 170].

The textbook explains that Orthodoxy regards the = Bible as the=20 verbal icon of Christ, the Seventh Ecumenical Council laying down that = the Book=20 of the Gospels and the holy icons should be venerated in the same way. = The=20 Gospel Book, its cover usually gold plated, is kept in a place of honor = in the=20 altar of every church. It is also carried in procession at the Liturgy = and=20 Matins on Sundays and feasts, and the faithful kiss it and prostrate = themselves=20 before it. Such is the respect shown in the Orthodox Church for the Word = of=20 God.

14. Who alone can interpret Holy Scripture = with=20 authority?

The Apostle Peter warns that "no prophecy of = Scripture is of=20 private interpretation" (2 Peter 1:20). Likewise, St. Cyprian of = Carthage=20 instructs that private interpretation of Scripture proves that a person = or local=20 congregation is not a part of the true Church of Christ. Thus, it = is the=20 Orthodox Church, which is the divine-human Body of Christ, that not only = writes Holy Scripture, but interprets it as well. = Moreover,=20 only the Orthodox Church is able to interpret Holy Scripture with = authority. An individual reader, however sincere he might be, falls into = the=20 danger of error if he trusts his own personal interpretations with = regard to=20 some of the Bible's many sayings that by themselves are far from clear. = The=20 reason for this danger is because, as St. Basil the Great explains, = "Purity=20 of heart is necessary in order to recognize that which is hidden in Holy = Scripture." The Russian Schema-abbot John of Valaam Monastery helps=20 explain:

Holy Scripture can be understood rightly only by the = pure in=20 heart, for they comprehend the will and purpose of God in the Scripture, = but for=20 people with hearts unpurified of passions it is a stumbling block.... = The Lord=20 said: "Blessed are the pure of heart, for they shall see God" (Mt 6:8). = And the=20 Holy Fathers purified their hearts of passions. They rightly know the = will of=20 God revealed in Holy Scripture, but those who have not purified their = hearts of=20 passions cannot rightly understand the Scripture, and such people = stumble over=20 it, turn away from the right path and go in different directions. One = could say=20 that they leave the big ship and sit down in a frail boat and want to = sail=20 across the sea of life, and they are perishing in the waves of vain = sophistries=20 [Fr. John, Christ in Our Midst: Letters from a Russian Monk, pp.=20 58-59].

Likewise commenting on the interpretation of = Scripture, the=20 nineteenth-century Russian bishop, St. Ignatii Brianchaninov (+1867),=20 admonishes:

Do not dare to interpret the Gospel or other books of = Holy=20 Scripture by yourself. The holy prophets and Apostles pronounced = Scripture. It=20 was pronounced not arbitrarily but by the inspiration of the Holy = Spirit=20 (2 Peter 1:21). How then is it not senseless to interpret it = arbitrarily? The=20 Holy Spirit, Who, through the prophets and Apostles pronounced the Word = of God,=20 interpreted it through the Holy Fathers. Both the Word of God and its=20 interpretation are a gift of the Holy Spirit. This interpretation = alone is=20 accepted by the Orthodox Church! This interpretation alone is accepted = by her=20 true children!

Whoever explains the Gospel and all of Scripture = arbitrarily,=20 by this very act, rejects its interpretation by the Holy Fathers, by the = Holy=20 Spirit. Whoever rejects the interpretation of Scripture by the Holy = Spirit,=20 without any doubt, rejects also Holy Scripture itself.

And it happens that the Word of God, the Word of = salvation, is=20 for its audacious interpreters an order of death, a two-edged sword by = which=20 they stab themselves to eternal destruction (2 Peter 3:16, 2 Cor = 2:15-16). By it=20 did Arius, Nestorius, Eutychius and other heretics slay themselves = eternally,=20 having fallen into blasphemy by arbitrary and audacious interpretation = of=20 Scripture [On Reading the Gospel ; emphasis added].

The same bishop adds:

The writings of the Holy Fathers are all composed = under the=20 inspiration of the Holy Spirit.... Do not consider it sufficient for = yourself to read the Gospel alone, without the reading of the Holy = Fathers! Many=20 people... who have senselessly and presumptuously rejected the Holy = Fathers, who=20 have come without any intermediary, with a blind audacity, with an = impure mind=20 and heart to the Gospel, have fallen into fatal delusion. The Gospel has = rejected them: it grants access to itself only to the humble.... From = the=20 reading of the Fathers' writings we learn the true understanding of Holy = Scripture [Ibid].

The depths of the words of the Holy Spirit, that is, = Holy=20 Scripture, contain within them unanswerable passages, or as St. Gregory = of Nyssa=20 puts it, "strong bones." Those depths may be understood only by those = who have=20 received the grace of the Holy Spirit. These individuals are the holy = ascetics,=20 whose understanding has been opened by God "that they might understand = the=20 Scriptures" (Lk 24:45). On the other hand, "The carnal man cannot = comprehend it"=20 (1 Cor 2:14). Since most people fall into this second category, the = Church comes=20 to our aid by giving us the spiritual explanation of Scriptures.

The Apostles received the gift of understanding the = Scriptures,=20 especially after the Holy Spirit descended upon them in the form of = tongues of=20 fire. And every faithful servant of God, every person who makes himself = worthy=20 of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, receives this same gift, according to = his=20 spiritual stature. To the degree that a person cleanses himself from the = passions, to the degree that he turns aside from his self-will and = submits=20 himself to God's will by forcing himself to fulfill God's commandments, = to the=20 same degree does he make himself worthy to receive God's gifts. Among = these=20 gifts is the understanding of the spiritual meaning of Scriptures.

The Holy Fathers took the narrow path of = salvation. They=20 purified their hearts and souls of earthly attachments and human = passions, they=20 cleansed themselves by great ascetic deeds and unceasing prayer, they = fulfilled=20 the commandments, and they obeyed the divine injunction: "Be ye holy, as = I am=20 holy." Through such a life, they received God's mercy, and they received = the=20 gift of the spiritual explanation of the Scriptures. Although the Holy = Spirit=20 did not descend visibly on them in the form of tongues of fire, they = still=20 received these gifts. Many Holy Fathers and ascetics of the Church have = written=20 commentaries on various books of the Scriptures, and these commentaries = entered=20 the Church's treasury of spiritual wisdom. To this day, all the Church's = faithful members nourish themselves on these writings.

Also commenting on the Church's interpretation of = Scriptures, a=20 Russian monk explains that:

Anyone who has ever read the works of the Holy = Fathers has been=20 impressed by their astonishing unity of thought. Living in different = countries,=20 in different periods of time, the Holy Fathers had the same outlook, the = same=20 perspective. Clearly, it is one and the same Spirit that acted and spoke = through=20 them all. Whosoever desires to comprehend the wisdom of the Holy = Scriptures=20 would do well if he does not trust his own powers but, "casting down=20 imaginations, and every high thing that exalteth itself against the = knowledge of=20 God, and bring into captivity every thought to the obedience of Christ" = (2 Cor=20 10:5), would humbly accept the wisdom from the Church's treasury. The = mind of=20 the Church is the mind of Christ. "We have the mind of Christ" (1 Cor = 2:16).=20 What can be more beneficial for us? To receive from the Church the true=20 understanding of things, or to proudly remain in our delusions? For this = reason=20 all true servants of Christ prefer to accept the wisdom of the Church = and to=20 shun their own as useless. Only under this condition can we fulfill the=20 commandment of the Apostle Paul concerning likemindedness among = Christians: "I=20 beseech you, brethren, by the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that ye all = speak=20 the same thing, and that there be no divisions among you: but that ye be = perfectly joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment" (1 = Cor=20 1:10); "fulfill ye my joy, that ye be likeminded" (Phil 2:2). And in = many other=20 places the holy Apostle speaks of this same likemindedness. From this it = is=20 clear what great importance he placed on this subject. And this is=20 understandable: only given such likemindedness can there be preserved = "the unity=20 of the Spirit in the bond of peace" (Eph 4:3). Only given this is true = love=20 possible among Christians. If there is no likemindedness, there will be = only=20 quarrels, disagreements and divisions. Writing to the Galatians, the = Apostle=20 Paul says that while he was there among them, they looked at things = through his=20 eyes (Gal 4:15). We too should look at things with the eyes of the = Church. If we=20 look with the eyes of our own unenlightened mind, each of us will see = and=20 understand in our own way. And the result will be =97 division.

To many it seems an inconceivable constraint for the = mind to=20 renounce its own judgments and submit itself to the judgments of the = Church. But=20 this is only an apparent constraint. St. Paul writes to the Corinthians: = "Ye are=20 not straitened in us, but ye are straitened in your own bowels" (2 Cor = 6:12). So=20 it is with us: it is not constraining for us in the Church, but only = seemingly,=20 since we have become accustomed to the evil and falsehood of this world = and do=20 not want to renounce them. We must convince ourselves that in accepting = the mind=20 of the Church we accept truth and in this way we draw closer to Christ, = Who is=20 the Truth (Jn 14:16). These judgments of the Church concerning various = matters,=20 including commentary on Scripture, consisting chiefly of the works of = the Holy=20 Fathers ... belong to the sphere of Sacred Tradition, and all faithful = members=20 of the Church conform themselves to these judgments.

Clearly, in the area of Scripture commentary it is = simply not=20 possible to manage without Sacred Tradition. Otherwise each individual = would=20 have to interpret the entire body of Scripture from scratch. We see that = every=20 religious confession, every sect, has its traditional explanation of = Scripture,=20 or at least of certain parts, and one can say that these explanations = are the=20 tradition of that particular confession. The authors of these = explanations are,=20 for the most part, pastors and preachers. Is it not better to take the=20 commentary of Holy Scripture from the ancient saints, who acquired the = Holy=20 Spirit and who have received testimony from above, than from people like = ourselves? [Monk Anthony, "Sacred Tradition," Orthodox America, = vol. 11,=20 no. 4, p. 10].

Fr. Gregory Williams can therefore conclude:

We must look to the Church if we are to have any = correct=20 understanding of the Scripture.... Whenever man tries to rely upon his = own=20 reason, rather than upon God's wisdom as imparted in the Holy = Church,=20 heresy is the certain outcome ... separation from the Truth.

The writers of Scripture received their knowledge = from=20 divine vision =97 theoria in Greek. The Holy = Fathers who=20 commented on Scriptures were also partakers of the same divine=20 theoria. Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos explains = that=20 through the centuries, there have appeared many heretical teachings that = have=20 distorted God's revealed Truth, that is, various false teachers elevated = their=20 minds above the mind of God. The Fathers confronted these heresies, he = states,=20 by the power of the Holy Spirit, for they are the bearers of the pure = Tradition of the Church. The metropolitan also notes that calling = the Church=20 Apostolic refers (among other things) to the fact that the = Church=20 rests on the foundation of the Holy Apostles and the Holy=20 Fathers, who are the Apostles' successors in nature and=20 essence.

It is only our ignorance that allows us to = consider=20 ourselves more "enlightened" than the Holy Fathers. Even a cursory = reading of=20 their lives and the lives of the other saints will demonstrate that we = are=20 spiritually weak people, by comparison. Given the God-inspired = teaching of=20 the Holy Fathers, one can readily discern that the patristic mind = represents=20 no ordinary mind, but something enlightened from on high, an ineffably = noble=20 treasure. Recognizing that the Fathers have a spiritual wisdom that we = lack, and=20 also knowing the poverty and fallibility of our minds, we = must=20 realize that we are not free to interpret the divinely inspired text of = Holy=20 Scriptures as we please (something the heretics did). Instead, we must = turn to=20 the Fathers and Church Tradition to allow them to open our minds to = accept=20 God's revelation rather than our own ideas. We must interpret the = Scriptures as the Holy Fathers teach, for the Fathers are the only sure=20 interpreters of Scripture. By adhering to this practice, we are = prevented from=20 the mistake of interpreting the Bible according to our own mistaken=20 understanding and opinion, and we are helped in partaking of the = catholic=20 consciousness of the Church. Through this practice, one is prevented = from going=20 out on a limb of one's own creation.

The idea that Holy Scripture is not to be interpreted = privately, but as a Church, was given its classical definition by St. = Vincent of=20 Lerins in the fifth century, when all the West was still fully united to = the=20 Orthodox Church. This zealous Church Father of Western Orthodox = Christianity=20 gave the renowned Vincentian canon of universality, antiquity and = consent=20 =97 that is, that that doctrine is binding which is held "everywhere, = always, and=20 by all" (quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus creditum). St. = Vincent=20 wrote:

Since the canon of Scripture is complete and more = than=20 sufficient in itself, why is it necessary to add to it the authority of=20 ecclesiastical interpretation?... Holy Scripture, because of its depth, = is not=20 universally accepted in one and the same sense. The same text is = interpreted=20 differently by different people, so that one may almost gain the = impression that=20 it can yield as many different meanings as there are men.

... Thus it is because of the great many distortions = caused by=20 various errors, it is indeed necessary that the trend of the = interpretations of=20 the prophetic and Apostolic writings be directed in accordance with the = rule of=20 ecclesiastical and catholic meaning.

In the Catholic [i.e., Universal =97 see note = below]=20 Church itself, every care should be taken to hold fast to what has = been=20 believed everywhere, always, and by all. This is truly and properly=20 catholic, as indicated by the force and etymology of the name itself, = which=20 comprises everything truly universal.

This general rule will truly be applied if we follow = the=20 principles of universality, antiquity and consent. We do so in = regard to=20 universality if we confess that faith alone to be true which the Church=20 confesses all over the world. [We do so] in regard to antiquity if we in = no way=20 deviate from those interpretations which our ancestors and fathers have=20 manifestly proclaimed as inviolable. [We do so] in regard to consent if, = in this=20 very antiquity, we adopt the definitions of all, or almost all, of the = bishops=20 [As quoted in Fr. John Whiteford, Sola Scriptura... p. 39].

(Here it should be noted that from antiquity, the = Christian=20 Church chose the word catholic to signify one of the principle = attributes=20 of the Church: its universality. In the ancient Symbols of Faith, = whenever the word Church appears, it is unfailingly used with the = adjective catholic. Likewise, the term is constantly to be found = in the=20 Acts of all the Ecumenical Councils, as well as in the writings of the = Fathers.=20 In all of these places, the word is never used in the sense of = Roman=20 Catholic, but in its original sense, which, as Protopresbyter Michael = Pomazansky=20 explains, "signifies the highest degree of all-embracingness, = all-inclusiveness,=20 wholeness, fullness." As a footnote in this professor's Orthodox = Dogmatic=20 Theology notes, the name of catholic was kept from = early times=20 in the Roman Catholic Church, but the teaching of the early = Church=20 has been preserved in the Orthodox Church, which even to = this day=20 can be and still is called catholic. Moreover, as another writer = adds,=20 since catholic means universal, "Roman Catholic Church" is = a=20 contradiction in terms. Rome=92s breaking away was in fact the departure = into=20 heresy and schism of only a fraction of the Church, and thus the=20 "Catholic (Universal) Church" is wrongfully appropriated by Rome. = Protopriest=20 Victor Potapov further explains that from the ninth century, the Eastern = and=20 Western Churches have gone along very different paths. The appellations = which=20 they took speak of the aims pursued by them: the Eastern Church began = calling=20 itself Orthodox, underscoring thereby that its main aim is to = preserve=20 the Christian faith unharmed. At the same time, the Western Church began = to call=20 itself Catholic emphasizing thereby that its main aim is the = unification=20 of the entire Christian world under the omnipotence of the pope).

The Latino-Protestant tradition and its deviations = from its=20 former Orthodox heritage are not the main focus of this course. However, = the=20 Protestant deviation from the Orthodox understanding of the = ecclesiastical=20 interpretation of Scripture will be examined here since, carried to its = final=20 conclusion, it forms the basis of the tyrannical relativism of the = modern=20 ecumenical movement.

After the Latin Church severed itself from Apostolic=20 Christianity and from the authority of Sacred Apostolic Tradition in = 1054, the=20 West was free to pursue its search for a new religion. At that = time, a=20 new element began to enter into Western thought: a growing emphasis = on man=20 rather than God. This development was seen almost immediately after = the=20 Great Schism, and it continued unchecked throughout subsequent = centuries. As a=20 result, the Western Church continuously moved away from the teachings = of=20 early Christianity, away from the light of the Gospel, and into the = darkness of=20 humanism.

Here it is necessary to pause on humanism, a = doctrine=20 that was born in the fourteenth-century Italian Renaissance with the = rediscovery=20 of the ancient classics. Humanism exalted the human intellect, fostered = a=20 critical spirit of inquiry, and beginning with man, and using man as = the only=20 integration point, it undertook to create a new philosophy of = man.=20 Humanism entails nothing less than Western man's dethroning God = and=20 placing man at the center of the universe in His stead. For this = reason,=20 humanism has been called the self-worship of man rather than = God.

The prevailing intellectual current of the = Renaissance was=20 humanism. During this period, a "synthesis" was made of Latin = Christianity and=20 pagan thought. As Archpriest Alexey Young writes concerning this=20 period:

We see this ["union"] in the writing of Dante and in = the=20 artistic creations of Michelangelo =97 for example, his frescoes in the = Sistine=20 Chapel. In art, these new concepts are particularly noticeable. For the = first=20 time, all artists began to make use of perspective =97 which is not = wrong in and=20 of itself, but which made it possible to place man in the center of = space. It=20 was a very optimistic, idealized concept of man. What man ever looked = like=20 Michael-angelo's David? This was not the Old Testament prophet and king; = rather,=20 it was a representation of the humanist ideal of man's "greatness." = Religious=20 art was now couched in completely human terms, at times actually = blasphemous.=20 For example, Fouquet's... painting, popularly called The Red = Virgin [was]=20 the king's mistress.... What could be more insulting to pious feelings? = While=20 the Virgin had for centuries been highly regarded, now all holiness was = removed=20 and representations of her were stripped of any "religious" meaning. = Here we see=20 how individual things were being viewed as more and more = independent and=20 divorced from reality.

The Renaissance is full of examples of this new = emphasis on man=20 to the exclusion of God. Whereas in the Middle Ages, artists had = remained=20 largely anonymous, and gave glory to God for their achievements, the = Renaissance=20 man identified himself as creator: a wonderful aura began to surround = men of=20 artistic genius. In Cellini's boastful autobiography (1558), he suggests = that=20 ordinary morality does not apply to geniuses like himself, an idea which = has=20 received lasting credence among Western artists. What demonic pride! = Even the=20 genre of biography strengthened man's faith in himself.

Not everyone, however, saw life in such overtly pagan = terms.=20 Some realized that it was indeed just that, a pagan "cloud" which = ultimately=20 could never support a meaningful philosophy of life. In Leonardo da = Vinci we=20 discover that at the end of his life, at the very height of humanism, he = began=20 to see where humanism would end. Da Vinci realized that, starting with = man, one=20 would never arrive at any ultimate meaning, and once the meaning and = purpose of=20 existence had been lost, man was no more than a machine, a collection of = molecules =97 which is precisely the conclusion of many thinkers today. = It is no=20 wonder that da Vinci, who lost all Christian hope, spent the last years = of his=20 life in a state of advanced depression.

But if men like da Vinci were finally able to see the = logical=20 conclusion of humanism, most others did not, and mankind was held fast = in the=20 grip of humanism. Even today we still hear echoes of it: "I can do = whatever I=20 will, just give me enough time." This is fallen man speaking. And once = man has=20 placed himself at the center of the universe, independent of everything = else, it=20 was almost impossible to dislodge him; the most powerful patrons of art = in=20 Europe, the Renaissance popes, themselves fully supported this = neo-paganism=20 [The Great Divide: the West Severs Itself From Its Orthodox Roots: an = Historical Overview, pp. 13-14].

During the ensuing period of the falsely-called = Enlightenment,=20 humanist thinkers perpetuated the Renaissance fascination with pagan=20 ideas. Among those pagan ideas was that of rationalism =97 = the=20 assumption that by the use of intellect alone, man can ascertain truth = and can=20 derive universals from it. Thus, the Enlightenment concluded, man can=20 reject the idea of revealed absolutes. (Rationalism, with its = dependence=20 on fallen human reason, is not to be confused with reason itself, which = is a=20 gift from God). The Enlightenment period was rooted in a total = rejection of=20 the Christian basis for life, and with its revival of destructive = pagan=20 influence, shock waves reverberated throughout Europe and affected = everything,=20 from art and science to educational theory. As the same Fr. Alexey = observes,=20 Europe, Western man, our world has never recovered; from this time = forth we=20 become a truly post-Christian "civilization." In view of what has = previously=20 been explained about heresies, these historical developments show that = the West=20 has been led by the devil onto a dead-end street.

In order to gain a more thorough understanding of how = so tragic=20 a development could come about in the West, once fully Orthodox = Christian, it is=20 necessary to look back to the thirteenth century, to the writings of a = Dominican=20 monk, Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas' works were condemned by popes and=20 proclaimed heretical in 1277. It was not until years later that = his=20 teachings gained respect and that he came to be one of the most = influential=20 thinkers of the Middle Ages. Aquinas is considered a major theologian in = the=20 Roman Catholic Church, one whose works were selected by the Roman see as = normative and worthy of merit. (In this reversal of position, one can = see how=20 teachings can be false and heretical in the Latin Church at one time, = only to=20 become "true" at another time). Aquinas' teachings will be examined here = as=20 they set the direction for the future development of Western theology = and=20 were the stimulus to the rise of humanism in the West.

Aquinas is famous for his Summa Theologica, a = massive=20 set of volumes of questions and answers that, as Hieromonk Seraphim Rose = explains, resemble the dossier of some legal case, and one that is = filled with=20 syllogistic reasoning ("if... therefore... and it follows... = consequently...").=20 In describing the fall of man in this work, Aquinas proposed that while = the will=20 of man was corrupted, his intellect was not corrupted. This idea was = completely=20 revolutionary, and it was totally foreign to Apostolic = Christianity. What=20 is meant was that man no longer needed God's revelation to find = the=20 truth, but that he could rely on his own human reason instead. = Intellectual=20 reasoning was elevated to such a lofty height in Aquinas' teaching that = all=20 Westerners were seduced into thinking that they can supplant God's = revelation=20 with human reasoning. Aquinas inadvertently opened the door to the = error of=20 the Greek philosopher Protagoras (sixth century BC), who said that "man = is the=20 measure of all things."

Aquinas' teaching was a departure from the Orthodox = patristic=20 approach, which bases the truths of the Christian faith upon the = foundation of=20 divine revelation =97 and not on rational, abstract deductions. = Even as far=20 back as the fourth century, St. Gregory of Nyssa stated that "men, = having left=20 off delighting themselves in the Lord (Psalm 36:4) and rejoicing in the = peace of=20 the Church, undertake refined researches regarding some kind of essences = and=20 measure magnitudes." Such a pursuit is foreign to the aim of true = theology,=20 which has the very practical task of Christian perfection.

Divine revelation and the patristic = witness of=20 revelation cannot be neglected, for the Holy Fathers are golden links in = the=20 chain of Truth forged by the Holy Spirit throughout the centuries in = Christ's=20 Church. Not everyone has the intellectual ability or grace necessary to = expound=20 Scripture correctly. This fact is noted by the Apostle Peter, who states = that=20 "there are some things in [Paul's epistles] hard to understand, which = the=20 ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruction, as they do the = other=20 Scriptures" (2 Peter 3:16). Moreover, when Church history is examined, = it is=20 apparent that all the heretics began with human conjecture and=20 anthropocentric views and always tried to investigate and analyze = the=20 Truth of the Church through human reasoning. On the other hand, = as=20 Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos explains, the Holy Fathers were = based on=20 the method of Orthodox devotion, which is purity of heart and = illumination of=20 the nous (the eye of the soul). After these two stages of their = spiritual=20 life, the metropolitan continues, they were able to attain knowledge of = God and=20 to theologize with divine inspiration (cf. The Person in the Orthodox = Tradition, p. 40). As Elder Cleopa of Romania goes on to add: = "The...=20 prophets and Apostles, as well as the Holy Fathers of the Church, while = by the=20 purity of their lives attaining to the simplicity and innocence of = infants, at=20 the same time also, on account of their wisdom, became as =91perfect = spiritual=20 men=92." (The Truth of Our Faith, p. 160). Hieromonk Seraphim = Rose comments=20 further on the Holy Fathers and explains that

In only one place is there to be found the fount of = true=20 teaching, coming from God, Himself, not diminished over the centuries = but ever=20 fresh, being one and the same in all those who truly teach it, leading = those who=20 follow it to eternal salvation. This place is the Orthodox Church of = Christ, and=20 the true teachers of the divine doctrine that issues from this fount are = the=20 Holy Fathers of the Orthodox Church ["The Holy Fathers of Orthodox=20 Spirituality," Orthodox Word, vol. 10, no. 5, p. 188].

As Dr. Ivan Andreyev also notes:

The divinely revealed teaching of God and man, = preserved=20 throughout the centuries and enriched in the saving enclosure of the = Orthodox=20 Church, is a limitless ocean of wisdom and should be approached with = fear and=20 trembling so as not to soil any aspect of it through out sinfulness and = pride.=20 It can in no way be improved upon by the daring hand of our intellectual = worldliness [Orthodox Apologetic Theology].

However, intellectual worldliness came to prevail in = the West=20 through Scholasticism, a system of academic reasoning that = integrated=20 rational philosophy with theology and lent itself to speculation. The=20 Scholastics' unnatural synthesis of theology and philosophy was based on = the=20 abstract syllogistic method of inquiry used by Aristotle. It is

... a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is = drawn from two=20 given or assumed propositions (premises): a common or middle term is = present in=20 the two premises but not in the conclusion, which may be invalid (e.g., = all=20 trains are long; some busses are long; therefore some busses are=20 trains: the common theme is long [The Concise Oxford = Dictionary of=20 Current English, ninth ed].

Scholasticism thus became a sterile framework more = suited to=20 exercising the intellect than to attaining a knowledge of the Creator = and His=20 creation, and it concerned itself with how many angels could fit on the = head of=20 a pin. However, through this new methodology, the Scholastics created a = system=20 by which they falsely imagined they could explore and investigate the = mysteries=20 of the Christian faith. Western theology therefore began to lose its = living=20 relation to the truth of Christianity. In the West, theology was reduced = to a=20 system =97 a system intended to "improve" upon the theology of = revelation.=20 Moreover, this attempt of the human intellect to revise = Christianity was=20 at the root of the later errors of the West.

Under the influence of Aquinas' teaching, Western = philosophers=20 increasingly began to think in an independent, autonomous manner and = came to=20 feel free to mix the divinely revealed truths of Christianity with = the=20 teachings of non-Christian philosophers. (It is for this reason that = so many=20 Catholics and Protestants today believe that Christian truth need no = longer be=20 tied to revelation, but can be mixed with the teachings of non-Christian = religions and philosophies). Aquinas himself relied on Aristotle, a = development=20 that was to prove deadly for Western theology, and hence for = modern=20 Western man. As Archpriest Alexey Young writes:

It is important for us to understand Aristotle's = ideas, which=20 Aquinas transformed into the framework of post-schism Western thought, = because=20 Aristotelianism prepared the way for Renaissance humanism, which = underlies the=20 whole problem faced today by Western man. Essentially, Aristotle taught = the=20 importance of "particulars," individual things over absolutes or "ideal" = things.=20 "Particulars" became so important that their true meaning =97 which is = derived=20 from their relation to an ethical hierarchy of absolutes =97 was = eclipsed. This=20 was a radical departure from the Platonic worldview which had given the = pagan=20 Greek world a philosophical preparation for Orthodoxy. If everything is = judged=20 from the relative basis of an individual's viewpoint, the finite = individual=20 ceases to have an ultimate value. And without some absolute meaning or = purpose,=20 outside of oneself, what use is there for living? What basis is there = for=20 morals? for values? for law? Thus, ever since Aquinas, Western man = has been=20 faced with a crucial dilemma: how to arrive at universal and absolute = ideas that=20 give meaning to the individual's existence =97 after the philosophical = basis for=20 an absolute has been destroyed [Op. cit. p. 10; emphasis = added].

The West's progressive departure from the Orthodox = worldview=20 accelerated during the period of humanism. As Scholastic rationalism = began to=20 take possession of Western minds, all of its syllogisms =97 whether = based on=20 Scripture or based on Aristotle =97 came to be of equal value. As = Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos writes in this regard:

The Scholastic theologians of the Middle Ages = considered=20 Scholastic theology to be a development surpassing the theology of the = Fathers,=20 and this was the starting point of the teaching of the Franks that = Scholastic=20 theology is higher than the theology of the Holy Fathers. = Therefore the=20 Scholastics, who were concerned with reason, considered themselves=20 superior to the Holy Fathers of the Church and also considered = human=20 knowledge, which is a product of reason, to be higher than = [God's]=20 revelation.... [The Mind of the Orthodox Church, p. 203].

Humanism did not go unchallenged. Prior to its = spreading like=20 tares in the Enlightenment period, a movement appeared in the late = Middle Ages=20 to counter its ruinous consequences. This movement grew out of the = teachings of=20 the fourteenth-century Oxford professor, John Wycliffe. In an = attempt to=20 restore belief in a universal absolute truth, Wycliffe went in = the=20 opposite direction and maintained that the Bible alone was the = supreme=20 authority. This idea was likewise radical and innovative, although it = was not a=20 surprising development, considering the confusion of those times in = which people=20 were struggling with the question of truth. Unfortunately, however, in = his=20 placing the Bible before the Church, Wycliffe did not have an = understanding of=20 the nature of Christ's Church, for Orthodox Christianity had long since=20 disappeared from Western Europe. Its disappearance from England took = place in=20 the following way.

During the eleventh century, the Germanic popes = allied=20 themselves with the all-powerful feudal, military aristocracies of = Europe. Of=20 these, the most powerful one was that of the Normans, and that alliance = proved=20 effective in helping Rome achieve its worldly aims. When England did not = fall in=20 line with Rome's schism in 1054, the pope financed Duke William of = Normandy to=20 invade and subdue England. As a consequence of the Norman conquest and = its mass=20 genocide of the English people in the Battle of Hastings (1066), England = was=20 brought under the control of the Germanic papacy. This was a papacy that = had=20 already cut itself off from the other four theologically more=20 sophisticated Patriarchates of the Christian Commonwealth that had = formed the=20 Christian Church for one thousand years. This new papacy was isolated = and=20 estranged from the rest of the Christian world as the papacy had fallen = into the=20 temptation of becoming a worldly, temporal power, one with = territorial=20 aims. William the Conqueror's bringing England under the control of = the=20 Latin Church entailed nothing less than a change of religion for England = =97 a=20 change from the Orthodox Christianity of pre-conquest England, to the = Roman=20 Catholicism of its immediate post-conquest period. Thus, with the = disappearance=20 of the Holy Church from England in the eleventh century, it bears = repeating,=20 Wycliffe had no knowledge of it, and as a result, he ironically laid the = groundwork for another humanist movement =97 the Protestant=20 Reformation.

Fr. Alexey Young notes that the Protestant = Reformation had some=20 good points: it believed that what the Bible says is true and that we = can=20 therefore know something about God. However, the humanist cult of the = individual and its trust in human reason that the Protestant=20 Reformers espoused, provided the grounds for a total subjectivism in=20 religion =97 a development that spelled both the birth and death of=20 Protestantism. In Protestantism, a new Christianity was created = =97 one=20 that rejects the safeguards of Apostolic Tradition, and one that bases = itself=20 upon private interpretation of Scripture. By introducing the=20 subjective principle that each individual can interpret Scripture = for=20 himself, the stage was set for today's relativism in which = anyone's=20 opinion can become a standard of belief. Hierodeacon Gregory of = Etna, a=20 convert from Dutch Reformed Protestantism, explains that so it is that = an=20 Evangelical, for instance, blushing like a blue dog, can promote himself = as a=20 peer of "Paul." Such an assertion ignores the fact that St. Paul was "a = man in=20 Christ... caught up to the third Heaven" (1 Cor 12:2) =97 and, Fr. = Gregory adds,=20 such is the disrespect that one frequently encounters among Protestants. = He goes=20 on to call it a spiritual egalitarianism that is the offspring of = deep-rooted=20 pride, the very antithesis of Christian virtue.

Archimandrite Panteleimon of Jordanville also = examines the=20 Western approach, and he goes on to comment on where it is ultimately = leading.=20 He writes that:

[In the end times], the Gospel will be known to all, = but some=20 will not believe it; a greater number will hold heretical opinions, = following=20 not the God-given teaching, but building up their own religion, of = their own=20 fabrication, though based on the words of Scripture. These = self-fabricated=20 faiths will be numerous. Their roots are found in the papacy, and then = continued=20 by Luther and Calvin. These latter two, by setting as a principle their = own=20 personal understanding of faith from Scripture only, gave a = strong=20 impetus toward the invention of numerous confessions. Although there are = many=20 now, there will be many more. For every kingdom their own faith, and = later for=20 every province, and then for every city, and finally, perhaps, for every = person,=20 his own faith. Wherever people devise their religions for themselves, it = cannot=20 be otherwise. And all such faiths will continue to appropriate to = themselves the=20 name Christian [A Ray of Light: Instructions in Piety and the State = of the=20 World at the End of Time, p. 31; emphasis added].

Fr. Alexey Young makes some additional pertinent = observations=20 concerning the process in which the fallen human intellect came to be = enthroned=20 in the West. He notes that in Western Christianity, people think that = one can=20 come to a knowledge of the truth primarily by thinking through a given = question=20 or concept. There is no other requirement than that a person be = reasonably=20 intelligent and informed. Such an assumption has been the norm for so = many=20 centuries now in Western Christianity that no Western Christian sees = anything=20 wrong with it, despite the evident fact that individuals, even = theologians,=20 starting out with the same basic set of facts, can arrive at opposite=20 conclusions. In Western Christianity, people come to substitute their = own=20 misunderstandings for divine understanding, that is, for the = all-embracing=20 reality of God's Truth. Because of that priority that Western Christians = place=20 on human reason, and their deification of it, heterodox Christianity = came to be=20 distorted in countless ways. In Western Christianity, man =97 not God = =97 has=20 been made the measure of all things.

Fr. Alexey further explains that the Western approach = is a=20 deviation from that of the Holy Fathers and saints, who, rather than = thinking=20 things out, first struggle against their sins and passions and seek = forgiveness.=20 As Archpriest Nicholas Deputatov adds in this regard, "The mysteries of = our=20 faith are unknown and not understandable to those who are not = repenting."=20 Moreover, as a Russian hierarch notes, the Eastern Orthodox teaching = differs=20 from that of the Western writers in that the Holy Fathers lead one to = repentance=20 and weeping over one's sins, whereas the Western writer leads one to = spiritual=20 enjoyment and self-satisfaction. It is therefore repentance =97 = not=20 academic education or human reason =97 that is the key to the knowledge = of God,=20 for it is only after repentance that God enlightens a person who seeks = Him. Fr.=20 Alexey observes that the Fathers did not despise human reason =97 they = had a great=20 respect for it, yet they also knew that God's ways often seem foolish to = the=20 wise of the world.

Summing up the entire alteration of Christianity = in the=20 West, the eminent dogmatic theologian St. Justin (Popovich) of = Chelije=20 writes that "in Western Europe, Christianity has generally been = transformed into=20 humanism." He then goes on to give the following compelling insight:

In both [Roman Catholicism] and Protestantism, man = has replaced=20 the God-Man as both the supreme value and the supreme criterion. A = painful and=20 sorrowful "correction" has been made of the God-Man, of His work and of = His=20 teaching [Quoted in Hieromonk Sava Yanjic, "Ecumenism in an Age of = Apostasy,"=20 Orthodox America, vol. 18, no. 7-8, 2000, p. 15].

Noting the same things, Protopresbyter Paul = Kalinovich adds=20 that European Protestantism, as in general the entire West, has replaced = the=20 genuine Christ with a Christ Who gives in to the temptations of Satan.=20 Therefore, he states, the West opposes the genuine Christ.

And so, standing in opposition to Christ as it does = in our time=20 of total secularization, the West is now at the point where it is ready = to=20 accept the one-world ruler, the antichrist. Through men who do his will, = Satan=20 has laid the groundwork for antichrist's appearance through a = gradual,=20 seductive, damaging mutation of Western Christianity into pagan = humanism, into=20 pseudo-Christianity.

In his examination of the phenomena assaulting = Christianity in=20 modern times, Hieromonk Seraphim Rose notes that for a growing number of = decades=20 now, concurrent with the modern cult of self in the affluent West, = Buddhism and=20 Hinduism have made massive inroads into Western culture. This new = religious=20 view, coupled with the new "church" being created by the National and = World=20 Council of Churches, is leading to a new and universal anti-Christian = religion=20 that will be a synthesis of many major religions, although it will = particularly=20 mock Christianity. Of that new world religion, Fr. Seraphim explains = that "the=20 religion of the future will not be a mere cult or sect, but a powerful = and=20 profound religious orientation which will be absolutely convincing to = the mind=20 and heart of modern man."

Such is a historical overview of how Christianity was = transformed in the West, and where that "corrected" and man-made = "Christianity"=20 is ultimately leading. As noted earlier, however, this answer will = endeavor to=20 explore specifically Protestantism's deviation from the West's former = correct=20 understanding of the ecclesiastical interpretation of Scripture =97 an=20 understanding that prevailed in the West prior to 1054, when the West = was still=20 united to Orthodoxy.

In the scholarly monograph Christianity or the = Church?=20 by the Holy New-Martyr Archbishop Ilarion Troitsky (+1929), the = translator's=20 preface notes that Protestantism is the daughter of Rome; it was = delivered out=20 of her womb in the sixteenth century by various teachers who realized = the=20 existence of great errors in Roman Catholicism and were well aware that = Rome was=20 only a forgery of the Church of Christ. When they withdrew from Rome, = however,=20 they did not seek to find the True Church, although Holy Scriptures=20 assured them that it was still to be found firm and intact on = earth.=20 Commenting on this situation, the martyr-archbishop writes:

[Protestantism] did not reestablish ancient = Christianity, it=20 only replaced one distortion of Christianity with another, and the = new=20 falsehood was much worse than the first. Protestantism became the last = word in=20 Papism and brought it to its logical conclusion.... Protestantism = [asked]: Why=20 is the truth given to the pope alone? =97 and added: Truth and salvation = are open=20 to each separate individual independently of the Church. Every = individual was=20 thus promoted to the rank of infallible pope. Protestantism placed a = papal=20 tiara on every German professor and, with its countless popes, = completely=20 destroyed the concept of the Church, substituting faith with the reason = of each=20 separate personality [p. 28; emphasis added].

In connection with these facts, Hierodeacon Gregory, = who, as=20 noted earlier, was formerly a Protestant, comments that both Roman = Catholicism=20 and Protestantism are united by the same error =97 that of displacing = Christ with a derivative element of the Church. Catholicism, he = states,=20 replaces Christ the Victor with the "Vicar of Christ," whereas = Protestantism=20 supplants God the Word with the Word of God (sola Scriptura). Fr. = Gregory adds=20 that in both cases, the ultimacy of Christ God is compromised: Roman = Catholicism=20 restricts Christianity to one man, while Protestantism dissipates it = among all=20 men.

The striving of the Protestants to restore = ecclesiastical truth=20 in the West did not return them to ancient Orthodoxy, but drew them into = errors=20 sometimes more grave than those present in the Latin Church. Having = enthroned=20 human reason, Protestantism advocated the belief of sola = Scriptura=20 (Scripture alone). This is the belief that the meaning of Scripture is = clear=20 enough that any believer can understand and interpret it simply by = reading it.=20 Thus the Church's help in interpreting Scripture becomes superfluous = when=20 every Protestant individual becomes an infallible pope, to use = the=20 comparison of the hieromartyr. As Michael Whelton goes on to describe = this new=20 doctrine:

Sola Scriptura is like a faulty gene embedded in the = genetic=20 code of Protestantism that causes it to perpetually mutate, thus = guaranteeing to=20 deny it doctrinal cohesion. It is therefore condemned to do what it has = always=20 done-divide, subdivide and divide again [The Pearl, p. 21].

Fr. John Whiteford sets forth a detailed examination = of the=20 Protestant approach to Scriptures in his Sola Scriptura: an Orthodox = Analysis=20 of the Cornerstone of Reformation Theology, a book that has been = widely=20 disseminated in Russia. This scholar's work is of particular merit in = that he=20 was formerly a Protestant minister and therefore has firsthand = experience with=20 Protestantism's thinking on Scriptures.

Fr. John, now an Orthodox priest, notes that when the = writings=20 of the Holy Fathers are considered at all in Protestantism, when these = teachings=20 conflict with the individual Protestant's own private opinions on the=20 Scriptures, those private opinions are considered more authoritative. = Thus,=20 instead of listening to the Fathers, whose lives and writings give = witness to=20 their sanctity and enlightenment by God, Protestantism gives priority = to=20 fallen human reason. The same human reason, however, has led the = most=20 influential Lutheran biblical scholars of the past three hundred years = not only=20 to reject many essential doctrines of Scripture, but to reject even the = divine=20 inspiration of the very foundation upon which the early Lutheran = Reformers=20 claimed to base their entire faith. The author also observes that = contemporary=20 Protestant scholarship is dominated by modernists who no longer believe = in the=20 inspiration or inerrancy of the Scriptures. They now place themselves = above the=20 Bible and only choose to use those suit them, discarding the rest as = "primitive=20 mythology and legend." The only authority left for such as these is=20 themselves.

Fr. John continues, stating that given nothing more = than the=20 Bible and the reasoning power of the individual alone, Protestantism = could not=20 agree on the meaning of the most basic questions of Christian doctrine. = During=20 Martin Luther's lifetime, dozens of differing groups came into = existence, each=20 claiming to "just believe in the Bible," yet each in disagreement with = the=20 others as to what the Bible says. As an example, Luther himself stood = before the=20 Diet of Worms, stating that unless he could be persuaded by Scripture or = by=20 plain reason, he would not retract any of his teachings. Later, however, = when=20 the Anabaptists, who were at variance with the Lutherans on a number of = points,=20 simply asked for the same indulgence, the Lutherans had them butchered = by the=20 thousands. (Although at first Luther opposed the burning of the = Anabaptists by=20 Lutherans, he later reluctantly came to approve of the death penalty for = them on=20 the grounds that they were guilty of sedition and blasphemy).

What a trend Luther started by completely ignoring = fifteen=20 centuries of the Church's existence and refusing to return to it, only = to invent=20 his own Church instead! As Archpriest George Larin notes, since Luther's = time,=20 there have been no end to "reformers" of "Christianity," each and all = claiming=20 to have rediscovered "lost biblical truth." This is truly a sad state of = affairs! The only thing that all of these so-called "reformers of the = Church"=20 have in common is that each group claims to rightly understand the = Bible, and=20 all of them have a particular blindness to what is written in the Bible = =97 itself=20 a product of the Orthodox Church that they reject.

Frank Schaeffer, a convert from Protestantism and the = son of a=20 noted Protestant theologian, explains that Protestants believe that they = need no=20 interpretation but their own in deciphering the meaning of Scriptures. = No=20 bishop, Apostolic or otherwise, has any authority over them regarding = its true=20 meaning, nor does any Father of the Church or Council hold any special = wisdom to=20 which they should hearken. For Protestants, their religion is a matter = of=20 personal choice. It is, in fact, anything they want it to be, although = they=20 might not admit as much. They proclaim that what they believe is = biblical,=20 although the Bible says anything they want it to say. They tend to = reject the=20 ancient Christian idea that the Holy Spirit leads the Church, yet they = readily=20 claim that the Spirit leads them personally, for which reason they are = correct=20 about theological matters and are "doing the Lord's will" in personal = matters.=20 If they disagree with the teaching of one denomination or minister, they = shop=20 around until they find one whose doctrine and personality suits them. = Mr.=20 Schaeffer points out that intuitive feelings and subjective = interpretations of=20 Scripture came to replace the Apostolic Holy Tradition as the guiding = principle=20 for biblical understanding. In the West, the subjective expression "I = believe"=20 came to replace the ancient declaration of faith: "This is what the = Church has=20 always taught."

Fr. John Whiteford comments further on = Protestantism's=20 subjective approach. He explains that with a subjectivity that surpasses = that of=20 the most speculative Freudian psychoanalysts, Protestant scholars = subjectively=20 choose the "facts" and "evidence" that suits their agenda and then = proceed, with=20 their conclusions essentially predetermined by their basic assumptions, = to apply=20 their methods to the Holy Scriptures =97 all the while thinking = themselves to be=20 dispassionate scientists. Moreover, he notes, since modern universities = do not=20 give out PhDs to those who merely pass on the unadulterated truth, these = scholars seek to outdo each other by coming up with new "creative" = theories. In=20 this entire approach, the former Protestant minister writes, is the very = essence=20 of heresy: novelty, arrogant personal opinion, and self-deception.

Today the differing confessions within Western = Christianity=20 number 23,000, and new groups spring up almost daily. Each and every = one of=20 them =97 whether Roman Catholic or Protestant =97 has created its own = "truths" and=20 doctrines, and each has either added to or taken away from the teachings = of the=20 Holy Apostles, and has altered the meaning of the Holy Gospels.

The same Fr. John notes that one common approach = among the=20 Protestants today (one that is most common among the less educated=20 fundamentalists, evangelicals and charismatics) is "just take the Bible=20 literally; its meaning is clear." These groups also often say: "The = Bible says=20 what it means and means what it says." However, when these groups come = to=20 scriptural texts that Protestants generally disagree with =97 for = example,=20 Christ's giving the Apostles the power to forgive sins (Jn 20:23), or = Christ's=20 saying of the Holy Eucharist: "This is My body.... This is My blood" (Mt = 26:26,28), or the Apostle Paul's teaching that women should cover their = heads in=20 church, then all of a sudden the Bible no longer means what it says! = With fallen=20 human reason, Protestants arbitrarily decide that these verses are not = meant to=20 be taken literally. In this way individual Protestants arrogate to = themselves=20 the power of being infallible popes (as St. Ilarion correctly = noted of=20 them), who in utter delusion imagine themselves to have a superior = understanding=20 of truth than the Holy Apostles, the Holy Fathers, and the Truth of = truths, the=20 Truth Himself, the Incarnate God. This pick-and-choose-what-to-believe = approach=20 has become the standard Western approach.

Seeing that so many splinter groups could not agree = on the=20 interpretation of Scripture, Fr. John adds, Protestant scholars asserted = that=20 the Holy Spirit would guide pious individuals to interpret Scriptures = correctly.=20 However, everyone who disagreed in matters of doctrine could not = possibly be=20 guided by the same Spirit. Thus, each of the differing groups within=20 Protestantism started to de-Christianize those others who disagreed with = it. If=20 such an idea were valid, it would produce one group of Protestants who = had=20 rightly interpreted the Scriptures, yet which of all the myriad = denominations=20 could it possibly be?

As the answer depended upon an individual's = particular=20 affiliation, Fr. John states, it became increasingly popular for = Protestants to=20 conclude that differences do not matter so much, that perhaps each group = has a=20 piece of the truth, while no one group has the whole truth. The idea = that all=20 denominations, even entire religions, must be equally respected, gave = way to the=20 belief that all religions are equally true, even when they contradict = one=20 another.

The utter illogicality and falsehood of this = conclusion beggar=20 the imagination. However, this assertion was taken over by the=20 Protestant-dominated ecumenical movement as its battle cry.

Concerning the development of the ecumenical = movement, the=20 translators of the Holy New-Martyr Archbishop Ilarion's Christianity = of the=20 Church? explain in the introduction that:

It was [at the time of the Bolshevik Revolution] when = the weak=20 and divided Protestant denominations, who previously had attacked the = Church of=20 Christ with their false teachings only as isolated viruses, had begun to = unite=20 together into what later became the World Council of Churches in order = to attack=20 the Holy Church in a "united front." The bride of the antichrist was = creating=20 herself and "the beginning of the illness" was about to erupt [p. = 6].

And erupt it did! The ecumenical movement created the = panheresy=20 of ecumenism. This false teaching maintains =97 and modern man has = been=20 programmed to believe =97 that "all truth is relative," that there = is no such=20 thing as objective and absolute truth (which means that there is = no=20 truth at all), that anything and everything must be accepted, no = matter=20 how outlandish, perverse or factually untrue. As the writer Peter = Jackson notes,=20 in pluralistic Western culture, no opinion is permitted to lay claim to = absolute=20 Truth. Hence, any opinion is considered valid just as long as it makes = no claim=20 to be anything more than a mere opinion. Any view is tolerated except = the one=20 which says, "This is the Truth."

These ideas find fertile ground in the modern age of = extreme=20 atheistic relativism with its popular attitudes that reflect sensitivity = to=20 "multicultural diversity" and "politically correct language." In such an = environment, the only dogma tolerated is that we should be = intolerant=20 of those who actually believe that there are dogmas reflecting absolute=20 truth.

In the ecumenical movement, a new basis of = understanding of the=20 Church and faith is given, one that echoes the spirit of the times, but = not the=20 eternal Word of God. Many of the movement=92s Protestant leaders reject = basic=20 Gospel principles and hesitate to accept Christ's Divinity, the = Resurrection and=20 immortality. Moreover, the agents of ecumenism grant its regulatory = control to=20 the clear enemies of Christianity and to secret societies opposed to=20 Christianity (1 Jn 2:19).

The ecumenical movement proclaims that the Orthodox = Church is=20 not the Church of Christ, that there is no visible Church of Christ, and = that it=20 is only now being formed. Ecumenism also applies to the notion of the = "True=20 Church" such epithets as "medievalism," narrow-mindedness, fanaticism, = ignorance=20 and darkness, yet at this time, it is beginning to honor itself as the = one true=20 "church."

The ecumenical movement also preaches a pluralism = that=20 maintains that the grace of God is present in all the Western = denominations,=20 that the details of one's belief in Christ are of no moment, and that = one's=20 membership in any particular Church is also of no importance. And, = ecumenism=20 adds, there is grace in the non-Christian religions as well, for all = religions=20 come from the same source, share common beliefs, and thus are the same, = are=20 one.

The ecumenical movement is creating a synthesis of = religions=20 that will comprise of all "partial" views (e.g., freemasonry, = Hegelianism,=20 Unitarianism, Bahai, Buddhism, and all world religions), although it is=20 completely hostile to Orthodox Christianity, alone among all the = religions. With=20 such a hodgepodge of innovations and syncretism, ecumenism drowns out = all other=20 voices with its proclamations of Christian unity, unity of all = religions, branch=20 theories, unconditional love, love with no bounds, sharing, salvation,=20 dialogues, interfaith prayers, ecumenical services, and the like.

This infinitely sinister movement, ecumenism, is = financially=20 backed by those forces bringing about the new world order, the one-world = government of the antichrist. Acting at the behest of political leaders, = ecumenism seeks to unite all religions into one in order to attack and = destroy=20 Christ's Orthodox Church once and for all =97 that is, to finish off = doing what=20 Communism was created in the apostate West to do, but could not do. = Indeed, the=20 same ecumenical movement colluded with the same forerunner government of = the=20 antichrist =97 Communism =97 in its attempt to destroy Orthodox = Christianity.

* * * * *

Fr. John notes that there is not one single verse in = the=20 entirety of Holy Scriptures that teaches the Protestant doctrine of sola = Scriptura, or even comes close to teaching it. While numerous passages = in the=20 Bible speak of its inspiration, of its authority and its profitability, = still,=20 there is no place in the Scriptures that teaches that Scriptures alone = are=20 authoritative for believers. If such a teaching were even implicit, then = the=20 Holy Fathers would most assuredly have taught that doctrine. However, = none of=20 them ever taught any such thing. Thus, Fr. John observes, = Protestantism's=20 most basic teaching is contrary to itself and self-destructs. Not = only is=20 sola Scriptura not taught in the Bible, but it is specifically = contradicted=20 by the Bible, which teaches that Holy Tradition is binding to=20 Christians (2 Thes 2:15, 1 Cor 11:2).

Fr. John therefore came to understand that in the = Orthodox=20 approach to Scriptures, it is not for an individual to strive for = originality in=20 interpretation, but rather to understand what is already present in the=20 Tradition of the Church. Thus, one is not to go beyond the boundaries = set by the=20 Holy Fathers and the Creeds of the Church, but is to faithfully pass on=20 Tradition as we have received it. To do such, one need not only apply = oneself to=20 great study and thought, but one must enter deeply into the mystical = life of the=20 Church.

Fr. John mentions that a millennium and a half ago, a = pre-Schism Father of the West, Blessed Augustine of Hippo, expounded on = how one=20 should study Holy Scriptures. This Father placed emphasis not on human = reason or=20 on the intellectual knowledge that one should possess, but on what kind = of=20 person one should be. He wrote that:

With such a standard, Fr. John states, one should all = the more=20 humbly turn to the guidance of the Holy Fathers who had these = virtues and=20 who were raised up by God as brilliant illuminators who interpreted = the=20 mysteries contained in Holy Scriptures. One must not delude = oneself=20 into thinking that one is a more capable or clever interpreter of = Scriptures=20 than the Fathers.

Once Protestants come to understand the fallacies = inherent in=20 the Protestant approach to Scriptures, it is only a short step for them = to=20 return to the Church that their Western forebears belonged to prior to = 1054, to=20 "come home" to Orthodox Christianity, even as the former=20 Protestant minister and scholar Fr. John did. Having come home, this = Orthodox=20 priest can now offer the following insight:

If Protestants should think the [Orthodox = understanding is]=20 arrogant or naive, let them first consider the arrogance and naivet=E9 = of those=20 scholars who think they are qualified to override (or more often, = totally=20 ignore) two thousand years of Christian teaching. Does the = acquisition of=20 a PhD give one greater insight into the mysteries of God than the = common=20 wisdom of millions upon millions of faithful believers and the Fathers = and=20 Mothers of the Church who faithfully served God and men, who endured = terrible=20 tortures and martyrdoms, mockings and imprisonments for the faith? Is=20 Christianity learned only in the comfort of one's study, or also as one = carries=20 his cross to be killed on it?

The arrogance lies with those who, without even = taking the time=20 to learn what Holy Tradition is, decide they know better =97 that only = now has=20 someone come along who has rightly understood what the Scriptures really = mean.

The Holy Scriptures are the summit of the Tradition = of the=20 Church. But the greatness of the heights to which the Scriptures ascend = is due=20 to the great mountain upon which [they rest]. Taken from its context = within Holy=20 Tradition, the solid rock of Scripture becomes a mere ball of clay, to = be molded=20 into whatever shape its handlers wish. It is no honor to the Scriptures = to=20 misuse or twist them, even if this is done in the name of exalting their = authority.

We must read the Bible; it is God's Holy Word! But to = understand its message, let us humbly sit at the feet of the saints who = have=20 shown themselves "doers of the Word and not hearers only" (James 1:22), = and have=20 been proven by their lives worthy interpreters of the Scriptures. = Let us=20 go to those who knew the Apostles, such as Saints Ignatius of Antioch = and=20 Polycarp, if we have a question about the writings of the Apostles. = Let us=20 inquire of the Church, and not fall into self-deluded arrogance. = [Sola=20 Scriptura: an Orthodox Analysis of the Cornerstone of Reformation = Theology,=20 pp. 44-45; emphasis added].

Fr. John's remarkable passage needs no exegesis. It = speaks for=20 itself.

In the same vein did Luke Gehring, another convert to = Orthodoxy, respond to the Jehovah's Witnesses who rang his doorbell. He=20 stated:

The Bible was written by Orthodox Christians for = Orthodox=20 Christians, preserved in times of persecution even at the expense of = their own=20 lives. And for you to now pick up the book which we have given to = you, and=20 claim that we are in error in understanding it, and that you have the = true=20 interpretation, is highly presumptuous in my opinion.... There is a = succession=20 of Orthodox bishops back to the original Apostles. Because you are = outside that=20 lineage, outside the culture, you have only your speculations as = to the=20 meaning of Scriptures. You do not have any true understanding, because = you are=20 not a part of Christ's Body. Or, to use another metaphor, you must be = grafted to=20 the true vine. Without this, you cannot understand the Bible rightly.... = Being=20 outside the historic Church-Orthodoxy, you are left to your own = speculations, in=20 place of the ancient understanding of Scripture [False = Witness: a=20 Dialogue with the Jehovah's Witnesses, pp. 3-5; emphasis added].

15. What verse of Scripture does the textbook = offer to=20 demonstrate the necessity of accepting the Church's interpretation of = the=20 Bible?

The textbook quotes the passage from the Acts of the = Apostles=20 wherein the Apostle Philip encountered St. Djan Darada, a eunuch of = Queen=20 Candice of Ethiopia. As the eunuch was reading the Prophet Isaiah, = Philip asked=20 him if he understood what he was reading. The eunuch replied, "How can = I, unless=20 someone guides me?" (Acts 8:30-31). Philip then gave him the Church's = interpretation, the Christian understanding, of what he had been = reading,=20 after which he baptized him.

This incident serves as a pattern for the spiritual = dependency=20 that the Orthodox have on the Holy Fathers. As the Apostle Philip = catechized the=20 eunuch, so did the Fathers instruct their disciples in biblical = exegesis, for=20 "they read in the book of the law of God distinctly, and gave the sense, = and=20 caused them to understand the reading" (Nehemiah 8:8).

16. Give an outline of when and how much of = the=20 Scripture is read in various Orthodox services.

17. Give your understanding of the Septuagint = Old=20 Testament.

The Septuagint version of the Old Testament is the = oldest=20 translation of any book in history and is the authoritative for Orthodox = Christians. Christ Himself used the Septuagint in all His quotes, = which=20 shows that the Septuagint has the certification of God Himself. = Moreover, the=20 Holy Apostles and Holy Fathers consistently used the text of the = Septuagint Old=20 Testament. This undertaking was to have a massive importance on the = spiritual=20 life of mankind.

Under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, the Old = Testament=20 Jewish priests accepted their task with an awareness of their = responsibility and=20 with extraordinary seriousness. They proclaimed a period of fasting and=20 intensive prayer for the nation, and they asked each of the twelve = tribes to=20 select six translators from each tribe so that the Sacred Scriptures = could be=20 translated into Greek, which then was the language of all tribes and = nations.=20 The concerted effort of the entire Old Testament Church in making this=20 translation produced the Septuagint of the Old Testament, which means of = the=20 seventy (although the actual number of translators was seventy-two).

Among the translators of the holy books was a = righteous man,=20 St. Simeon, known as the God-Receiver. As he was occupied in translating = the=20 sacred books from Hebrew to Greek, he paused in perplexity at the = following=20 words of the Prophet Isaiah: "Behold, a virgin shall conceive in the = womb and=20 bring forth a son, and thou shalt call his name Emmanuel" (Isaiah 7:14). = Not=20 grasping the mystery of the Virgin Birth, the pious elder picked up a = knife and=20 was preparing to scrape out what he thought was an error in the text. He = was=20 then stopped by an angel, and it war foretold to him by the Holy Spirit = that he=20 would not die until he had seen the promised Messiah, Christ the Lord = [cf. Lk=20 2:26].

The prophecy made to the elder did come to pass. = According to=20 the Law of Moses, on the fortieth day after the birth of their firstborn = son,=20 all Hebrew parents were to bring the son to the temple to be consecrated = to God,=20 and it was customary to bring a sacrifice in thanksgiving to God as = well. This=20 law was established in remembrance of the tenth and final plague that = led to the=20 Hebrews' deliverance from bondage in Egypt. In fulfillment of the law, = the=20 Mother of God and her espoused husband, the righteous Joseph, brought = Christ to=20 the temple in order to present Him to the Lord, and for their sacrifice, = they=20 brought two fledgling doves. At that time, the elder Simeon and Anna the = prophetess testified before all the people in the temple that the Child = was the=20 Messiah. St. Simeon, who had waited a long time for the fulfillment of = the=20 promise God made to him, took Christ into his arms, and blessing and = glorifying=20 God, he said:

"Lord, now lettest Thou Thy servant depart in peace, = according=20 to Thy word: for mine eyes have seen Thy salvation, which Thou hast = prepared=20 before the face of all people; a light to lighten the Gentiles, and the = glory of=20 Thy people Israel" (Lk 2:29-32).

As Archpriest Seraphim Slobodskoy explains about = these words,=20 St. Simeon called the newborn Lord a light to enlighten the = Gentiles,=20 that is, all the tribes and nations, and the glory of Thy people, = that=20 is, "Israel." There are two Israels, Fr. Seraphim writes: the Old = Testament one=20 and the New Testament one. In the Old Testament, it was the chosen = Hebrew=20 people, or Israelites, and in the New Testament, it is the entire = Christian=20 world.

Considerably later than the Septuagint was produced, = an Aramaic=20 translation of the Holy Scriptures appeared =97 the Peshitta, = which=20 coincides on all important points with the Septuagint. (Bishop Nathanael = notes=20 that it apparently dates to the first century BC for the Old Testament = portion=20 of the Holy Scriptures, and about the second century AD for the New = Testament=20 portion). Both the Greek and Aramaic translations have been preserved = free from=20 corruption in the Orthodox Church by the grace of God and the struggles = of pious=20 Christians, whereas the Hebrew text in the Hebrew community was saved by = technical means (an explanation will follow).

For the Syrian Orthodox Church and all Eastern = Churches=20 connected with it, the Peshitta holds the same authority as the = Septuagint holds=20 for the other Orthodox Churches. Also, while the West was still a part = of the=20 Orthodox Church, yet another translation appeared: the Vulgate,=20 translated by St. Jerome, which means the same thing as Peshitta in = Syriac:=20 common. All three of these translations are honored with far more = authority than=20 the Hebrew original.

At the time of Christ, the ancient Hebrew language = that the Law=20 and the major portion of the Old Testament were written in was already a = dead=20 language. The language then in use in Palestine was Aramaic, which was = spoken by=20 Christ.

During the earthly life of Christ, Hebrew was the = language only=20 of the learned scribes, Pharisees and the sadducee priests, all of whom = became=20 the enemies of Christ. Thus, from the very beginning in the Christian = Church,=20 the Scriptures were not listened to our read in Hebrew in the = service.

After the passing of a couple of centuries, Hebrew = Scriptures=20 vanished completely from among Christians. At that time, the Jewish = community,=20 having rejected Christ and been unfaithful to its original destiny, = received a=20 different charge. As the Jews were the sole repository of the ancient = Hebrew=20 Scripture, they began to testify against their will that all that the = Christian Church teaches with regard to the ancient prophecies and=20 prefigurations of Christ the Saviour, and of God the Father's preparing = the=20 people to accept the Son of God, are not fabricated by the Christians, = but=20 reveal a genuine, many-faceted, established truth.

After many centuries of separate existence in varied = places and=20 within inimically opposed circles, Scriptures in Greek and Aramaic = translation=20 (and also translations from them) on the one hand, and the Hebrew = originals on=20 the other, were compared. With rare exception, the Scriptures from both = groups=20 were found to be identical in all essential matters. In the face = of the=20 widespread and malicious slander of all generations that wages war = against the=20 Word of God, this agreement shows that so carefully and lovingly was the = holy=20 text of divine words been preserved that, as Bishop Nathanael writes, = "Humanity=20 has praiseworthily vindicated the trust of God, Who delivered the = absolute Truth=20 to aid weak and limited human powers."

Given the fact that the texts coincide on all the = important=20 points, the question arises why the Greek and Aramaic translations hold = greater=20 authority with Orthodox Christians than the Hebrew originals? As noted = earlier,=20 the Greek and Aramaic Scriptures have been preserved free from = corruption=20 by God's grace and the labors of grace-bearing individuals. When = Christian=20 scribes copied verses from Scripture, the scribe himself, as a child of = the=20 Church, a participant in its divine life, and one knowing the truth, did = not=20 make grave errors in the transcribed text. Also, those to whom he = presented his=20 transcribed book would not have overlooked any distortion of the meaning = of the=20 holy words to which the Church is so attentive.

In contrast, in the Jewish community, texts were = transcribed by=20 Jews who did not know the fullness of truth. Those verses of Scriptures = speaking=20 of the coming of Christ, and of the other mysteries of the Christian = faith, were=20 not understood by them. As a result, when working with mistakes of=20 transcription, they could not arrive at a correct understanding of the = text, nor=20 where the Jews who listened to them able to offer correction. Having = lost grace,=20 the Jewish community lacked a built-in, living corrective for correcting = its=20 entrusted text, something the Christian Church does indeed have. Thus, = in the=20 Jews' work of preserving the holy texts, they had only natural human = means to=20 work with, and those means are prone to error.

The Jewish community was clearly and agonizingly = aware of the=20 fact that errors were multiplying in its manuscripts, and thus it was no = longer=20 able to judge the authenticity of any variant reading. It therefore = decided upon=20 undertaking an astonishing and massive project to prevent the complete=20 corruption of the texts of Scripture. At that time, the Jewish scribes = known as=20 masoretes (preservers of tradition) removed all the manuscripts of = sacred books=20 from all the synagogues of the world and replaced them with their own=20 translations. These editions were strictly precise and had been checked = letter=20 by letter by the masoretes themselves. Under threat of curse, in the = future, not=20 one book of Scriptures could be presented to a synagogue without first = being=20 checked letter by letter with the initial texts. Thus, by this earthly = means,=20 Old Israel guaranteed that integrity and immutability of the text of = Scriptures=20 which the Lord gives freely to His Christian Church by means of = grace.

The extent of the immutability of the synagogue's = masoretic=20 text is astonishing. At the end of the nineteenth century in central = China,=20 Hebrew groups who had lived far from the mainstream of Jewish life ever = since=20 the fourth or fifth century were discovered. It was shown that between = the books=20 they had (the Torah, Prophets and Psalms) and the European synagogue = text, there=20 were only fourteen variations of spelling. However, all this uniformity = amounts=20 to absolutely nothing. Only standardization of text was achieved, yet = those=20 errors which already existed at the time of the masoretic reform were = not only=20 allowed to remain, but some distortions were purposely introduced = by the=20 masoretes to obscure the clarity of the prophecies which foretell Christ = the=20 Saviour.

One of the masoretic alterations was of the = above quoted=20 Isaiah 7:14 ("Behold, a virgin shall conceive in the womb and bring = forth a=20 son"). The masoretes deleted the word vetula (virgin) in the = text,=20 substituting in its place al 'ma (young woman) in all Hebrew = texts=20 throughout the world. Taking exception with the Jewish interpreters at = that time=20 were Christian apologists who asked what kind of a sign, about = which the=20 prophet speaks, would be the birth of a son to a young woman have been, = given=20 the fact that it is an everyday occurrence.

In a 1952 edition of Time magazine (no. 18, p. = 5), an=20 article dealt with a recently discovered manuscript of the above = prophecy of=20 Isaiah written before the birth of Christ. In this manuscript, the word=20 virgin appeared, not young woman. Likewise, the New = Testament=20 follows the Septuagint text: "Behold, a virgin shall be with child, and = shall=20 bring forth a son" (Mt 1:23).

It is therefore clear why the Orthodox Church prefers = the=20 Septuagint translation as the authoritative text of the Old Testament, = over the=20 currently existing Hebrew text. The Septuagint is the text established = under the=20 inspiration of the Holy Spirit by the concerted effort of the Old = Testament=20 Church, and its text, it bears repeating, remains free from = corruption.

The prefatory notes to this chapter state that = research into=20 the Dead Sea Scrolls suggests the Septuagint is the older and more = authentic of=20 Old Testament Scriptures. As is shown in the history above, the = Septuagint is=20 most assuredly older than the currently existing Hebrew texts that have = been=20 revised with distortions by the masoretes.

Concerning the same passage of Isaiah 7:14, Fr. James = Thornton=20 makes some additional notations. He explains that the original King = James of the=20 Bible correctly interprets this passage and retains the word = virgin.=20 Likewise, the Douay, translated from the Latin Vulgate in the closing = years of=20 the sixteenth century, also correctly retains the word virgin. = However,=20 the 1952 Revised Standard of the Bible, published under the National = Council of=20 Churches of the USA (which, in conjunction with the World Council of = Churches,=20 is forming the one-world religion of the antichrist), substitutes the = ambiguous=20 phrase young woman for virgin. Fr. James notes that this=20 substitution was made for no other reason, apparently, than that the = notion of=20 the Old Testament prophecy of the Virgin Birth of Christ =97 and = doubtless the=20 truth of the Virgin Birth itself =97 was obnoxious to the rationalists, = ideologues=20 and non-believers responsible for this travesty.

Likewise, the World Council of Churches published and = distributed Romanian language Bibles to the persecuted Orthodox = Christians of=20 Romania. In these translations, the word idol had consistently = been=20 deleted and replaced with the word icon. This distortion was made = in an=20 attempt to make Orthodox believers think that God forbids icons and that = Orthodox Christianity is contrary to God's revelation. Such an agenda, = of=20 course, is that of the antichrist.

In connection with these kinds of willful distortions = of=20 Scripture, the staff of the newly translated Third Millennium Bible = explain that=20 "most contemporary translations of the biblical text have been made to = conform=20 in important respects to the ever-changing views of translators, social=20 scientists and politicians." As a result, the Bible is reduced "to a = kind of wet=20 clay upon which divers translators, representing numerous agendas" have = sought=20 to impress their views. These agenda-driven redactors, the staff members = observe, are really "linguistic engineers" who aim at moving our culture = in a=20 secular direction. That is, they are preparing the way for the = antichrist.

The same Fr. James warns that in an age of apostasy = and rabid,=20 soul-destroying ideologies and social upheavals, such changes can be = exceedingly=20 perilous to a Christian believer. Therefore, he continues, we must = cherish=20 traditional versions of the Bible and not cast them aside in favor of = the modern=20 renditions. The latter ones, the street-language versions, are at best = "impious,=20 witless muddles and, at worst, quasi-theological arsenic =97 or, to use = another=20 apt metaphor, psychological Trojan horses fabricated for planting within = the=20 innermost recesses of unsuspecting minds," he concludes.

It should be parenthetically be added that Fr. James=20 wholeheartedly endorses the Third Millennium Bible. He observes that it=20 preserves the noble language and dignified cadence of the traditional = King=20 James, while changing only those words that are incomprehensible to the=20 overwhelming majority of educated readers of today. Of the relatively = few words=20 that have been updated are those that have disappeared from the language = or that=20 convey a substantially different meaning generally understood in 1611. = Moreover,=20 this new edition of the Bible is augmented by the ten = deuterocanonical=20 or apocryphal books, as they are called in the West (they are = also=20 called the non-canonical books =97 see note below). Fr. James calls the = staff of=20 the Third Millennium Bible honest scholars who have struggled to save = what is in=20 truth the very core, the heart, of our Christian faith and culture.

Concerning the so-called deuterocanonical or = apocryphal books,=20 they were an integral part of the Septuagint text of the Old Testament = as it was=20 in use at the time of Christ, and these books have always been an = integral part=20 of all Orthodox Bibles. They were also formerly included in all = Christian=20 Bibles, and a law in 1615 in England even forbade the Bible to be = printed=20 without them. It is an unknown fact to most Americans that these books = were=20 included in the original King James of the Bible until the rise of the = more=20 extreme and militant of the Protestant denominations. It was only under = the=20 influence of various fundamentalist groups that they came to be excluded = from=20 nearly all editions of the KJV in this country.

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky explains that these = last ten=20 books are of Hebraic origin and were extant only in Greek, although from = the=20 time of the Jewish council in Jamnia in 90 AD (see below), the Jews = ceased to=20 make use of them in their religious life. Fr. Michael states that the = term=20 non-canonical used in reference to these books refers to the fact = that=20 they are not included in the Hebrew canon of Scripture because they were = written=20 after the closing of the canon of the sacred Old Testament books. In the = Protestant world, these non-canonical books of the Old Testament are = commonly=20 called the apocrypha, often with a pejorative connotation, and also a = complete=20 misnomer as there is nothing hidden about them. In the Roman = Catholic=20 Church since the sixteenth century, they came to be called = deuterocanonical =97=20 that is, belonging to a second or later canon of Scripture. As = Fr.=20 Michael writes concerning these books:

The [Orthodox] Church accepts these latter books also = as useful=20 and instructive and in antiquity assigned them for instructive reading = not only=20 in homes but also in churches, which is why they have been called=20 "ecclesiastical." The Church includes these books in a single volume of = the=20 Bible together with the canonical books. As a source of the teaching of = the=20 faith, the Church puts them in a secondary place and looks on them as an = appendix to the canonical books. Certain of them are so close in merit = to the=20 divinely inspired books that, for example, in the eighty-fifth Apostolic = Canon,=20 the three books of Maccabees and the book of Joshua the son of Sirach = are=20 numbered together with the canonical books, and, concerning all of them=20 together, it is said that they are "venerable and holy." However, this = means=20 only that they were respected in the ancient Church; but a distinction = between=20 the canonical and non-canonical books of the Old Testament has always = been=20 maintained in the Church [Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, pp. = 27-28].

Fr. Gregory Williams gives the following explanation = as to why=20 the non-canonical books were excluded from the religious life of the = Jews after=20 Christ's Resurrection:

These apocryphal books came to be an issue not = for the=20 Christians, but for the post-Resurrection Jews. They in many cases = clearly=20 prophesied concerning the Lord and so were an embarrassment to those who = refused=20 to accept His Divinity. Consequently, they were officially barred from = the=20 Jewish canon (official table of contents) of the Scriptures at = the=20 Jewish Council of Jamnia at the end of the first century AD, = sixty or so=20 years after the Resurrection. The Protestant Reformers of the sixteenth = century=20 chose to accept the authority of the Jewish council in preference to = that of the=20 Apostles and the Fathers.

We may reasonably ask why. It makes no sense that = they should=20 object to these books on the same basis as that of the rabbis of Jamnia. = The=20 answer to the puzzle is quite simple: the books (some of them) also make = quite=20 evident, prophetically, the special role of the Theotokos, the Mother of = God,=20 the maiden Mary of Galilee, in God's plan of salvation. Numerous = passages from=20 them are cited quite effectively by the Fathers in discussing the = Church's=20 understanding of the role of the Theotokos.

Consequently, the [Protestant Reformers] simply opted = to get=20 rid of the books they disliked, using the pretext provided by the rabbis = that=20 the books did not exist in the Hebrew text [Where Did the Bible Come=20 From?, pp. 4-5].

Fr. Gregory's well researched booklet is particularly = noteworthy in that he, like Fr. John Whiteford, was formerly a = Protestant who=20 converted to Orthodox Christianity and fully assimilated the Orthodox=20 understanding.

18. How do the decisions of a local council = obtain=20 ecumenical authority?

The Ecumenical Councils are unerring and express the=20 consciousness and the life of the Church. While the doctrinal = definitions of the=20 Ecumenical Councils are infallible, those of local councils of = individual=20 bishops are always liable to error. However, if the decisions reached in = local=20 councils are accepted by the rest of the Church, they then come to = acquire=20 ecumenical authority =97 that is, a universal authority similar to that = possessed=20 by the doctrinal statements of an Ecumenical Council.

19. Although it is not mentioned in the = textbook, can=20 you name one set of local councils which dealt with the same subject, = and which=20 obtained ecumenical authority and inclusion in the Synodikon of=20 Orthodoxy?

Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos devotes the = entire last=20 chapter of his book The Mind of the Orthodox Church to the = Synodikon of=20 Orthodoxy. Giving background information, he explains that through the = ages,=20 various heresies appeared that denied God's revelation and made use of=20 philosophy and conjecture. When some heresy would spring up, the Holy = Fathers=20 would oppose it at the place where it appeared. (The heretic Arius, for = example,=20 was confronted by the Council of Alexandria, but when his heretical = opinions=20 began to be disseminated beyond the borders of Alexandria as well, the = subject=20 was confronted by the First Ecumenical Council). In their confrontations = with=20 the heretics, the Holy Fathers who formed the Synods did not seek to = find the=20 truth by making conjectures by reasoning and imagination. Instead, they=20 attempted to formulate in words the already-existing revealed Truth, of = which=20 they also had in their own personal experience. The mind of the Church = is linked=20 to, and is in harmony with, the decisions of the Fathers of the Church = as it has=20 been expressed with conciliar authority.

The metropolitan also explains that the decisions of = the Synods=20 on dogmatic topics are called provisions, and more generally speaking, = each=20 decision of the Synods is called a synodikon. Thus, there is a = symbolical tome=20 and a synodical provision, and moreover, each Synod has its own = synodikon.

Concerning the Synodikon of Orthodoxy, it is a text = contained=20 in the Lenten Triodion and is read on the first Sunday of Great Lent, = the Sunday=20 of Orthodoxy, whence its name. This text contains the decisions of the = Seventh=20 Ecumenical Council, which refer to the veneration of holy icons. To it, = there=20 was later added the definition of faith of the hesychastic councils of = the=20 fourteenth century, which addressed St. Gregory Palamas' confrontation = with the=20 heretic Barlaam. (Hesychasm is a method through which great = stillness and=20 unceasing prayer of mind and heart unite a Christian with God). Thus, = the=20 Synodikon of Orthodoxy comprises the decisions of both the Seventh = Ecumenical=20 Council and the councils of the fourteenth century. It is a holy text, = one=20 which, as the metropolitan explains, sums up the entire orthodox = teaching of=20 Christ's Church.

20. Briefly summarize in your own words what = you=20 consider to be the main points in sections 4, 5, 6 and 7 of this chapter = of the=20 textbook.

Section 4: The definitions handed down by the = Ecumenical=20 Councils must be seen in the wider context of the Holy Fathers, the = Church's=20 great theologians. It is not enough simply to know and quote the = Fathers; one=20 must acquire a patristic mind. Among the Fathers, a special reverence is = held=20 for the Three Great Hierarchs: Saints John Chrysostom, Basil the Great = and=20 Gregory Nazianzus. The textbook states that the age of the Fathers did = not=20 necessarily come to and end and that our age could produce another Basil = or=20 Athanasius.

Section 5: The Orthodox Church does not have = the Latin=20 Church's established preference for making formal dogmatic definitions. = However,=20 it would be false to conclude that because Orthodoxy has not proclaimed = some=20 belief to be dogma, it is therefore not a part of Tradition, but merely = a matter=20 of private opinion. Certain doctrines, although never formally defined, = are=20 still held by the Church with an unmistakable inner conviction and = oneness of=20 mind, and they are just as binding as an explicit formulation. As St. = Basil=20 explains, "Some things we have from written teaching, others we have = received=20 from the Apostolic Tradition handed down to us in a mystery; and both = these=20 things have the same force for piety."

Noteworthy in this connection are the observations of = Fr.=20 Theodore Pulcini, a convert from Roman Catholicism to Eastern Orthodoxy. = Fr.=20 Theodore says expressively:

Orthodoxy [views] theology less as an exercise in = reason than=20 as an attempt to express an ineffable mystery. Theology in the Catholic = West=20 [seems] to be largely a matter of precise definition and syllogistic = deduction,=20 highly philosophical and rationalistic in nature. In the Orthodox East, = theology=20 [seems] to be largely a matter of doxology, of bowing in reverent wonder = before=20 the ineffable; it [is] less concerned with philosophical precision than = with=20 experiencing the incomprehensible. This attitude finds expression in the = unparalleled beauty and majesty of Orthodox worship.

It occurred to me that if Christianity may be likened = to a=20 pool, the Catholic West spent a great deal of time describing that pool = and=20 analyzing its waters. The Orthodox East preferred to dive in! I did not = detect=20 the sort of dryness in Orthodox theology that I had in the = Scholasticism=20 of the Catholic tradition [Orthodoxy and Catholicism: What are the=20 Differences?, p. 19].

Orthodoxy's Tradition is preserved foremost in the = prayers and=20 hymns used in its services, which explain in part the Holy Eucharist and = other=20 mysteries, the next world, the Theotokos, the faithful departed and the = saints,=20 things of which the Church has made few explicit definitions. Also, it = is not=20 merely the words of the services that form a part of Tradition; = all the=20 gestures and actions have a special meaning as well =97 = the three=20 immersions and emersions in the waters of Baptism, the anointing with = oil, the=20 sign of the Cross, and so forth =97 all express in a symbolic way the = truths of=20 Christianity.

Section 6: Canons (regulations) were drawn up = by the=20 Ecumenical Councils, by local councils, and by individual bishops. They = deal=20 with the Church's earthly life and are an attempt to apply dogma to the=20 practical situations in the life of each Christian. Canons form a part = of=20 Tradition.

Section 7: Tradition is also expressed in art, = in=20 iconography. Icons are one of the ways in which God is revealed to man. = They are=20 windows into Heaven, and through them, people gain a vision of the = spiritual=20 world. Because icons are a part of Tradition, an iconographer is not = free to=20 adapt or innovate as he pleases, but paints within certain prescribed = rules so=20 that his work reflects the mind of the Church. Most importantly, = iconographers=20 must be sincere Christians who live in the spirit of Tradition and who = prepare=20 for their task through the reception of the Holy Mysteries = (Sacraments).

21. Do you agree with the textbook's comments = concerning the=20 alter-ability and relative value of canons?

The textbook's remarks about the alterability and = relative=20 value of canons are a modernist deviation from the strictest standards = of=20 Orthodoxy. As such, they warrant comment.

To help eliminate confusion in this matter, the = textbook should=20 have begun its discussion of canon law with the notation that there are = two=20 types of canons: those of a dogmatic or doctrinal nature, and those of = an=20 ethical, practical or structural character. This distinction is not = given.

Concerning the canons of the first group, the = dogmatic or=20 doctrinal ones, they have a meaning that remains eternal and=20 unchanging. An example of this kind would be a dogmatic canon = speaking=20 about the nature and Person of Christ. This kind of canon can = never=20 change.

The author of the textbook is not unaware of this = fact. He=20 merely places all such canons in the category of doctrinal = definitions of the=20 Ecumenical Councils, and he recognizes the infallibility and=20 unchanging nature of these definitions. As he points out, they = deal with=20 eternal truths, they cannot be revised or canceled, and along = with the=20 Bible and Creed, these definitions are a preeminent part of = Tradition.

The author's bone of contention is therefore not with = the first=20 group of canons (otherwise he would not be an Orthodox Christian); = instead, it=20 is with what he terms "canons as such." Of these, he maintains that they = cannot=20 claim the absolute and unalterable validity that doctrinal definitions=20 possess.

In reply, it has to be noted that even in the second = group of=20 canons, there are once again those that are absolute and=20 unchanging. Canons forbidding the sale of the Church's Mysteries = are=20 canons of this type: they can never be changed.

The author has in mind certain canons of the = second=20 group, sc., those dealing with "the earthly life of the Church where = conditions=20 are constantly changing and individual situations are infinitely = various." These=20 canons, he claims, form part of Holy Tradition "in a relative sense = only."

Again in reply, this line of thinking appeared only = in the=20 twentieth century, and then not among all Orthodox, but only among the=20 modernist/ecumenist element. Mired in religious relativism and a secular = mentality, this group wants to reexamine everything that Orthodox = Christianity=20 ever represented and shed its blood for, and which it taught through the = Holy=20 Apostles and Ecumenical Councils. The modernists' agenda is what = Archbishop=20 Averky of Jordanville calls "an undermining of what has been established = from of=20 old, with the relentless violation of the ancient institutions of the = Church=20 which originated in Apostolic times, and with the... discarding of all = the...=20 beliefs and pious traditions bequeathed to us by the first = Christians."

"Orthodox" ecumenists trample on the Church's sacred = canons.=20 They see the canons, dogmas, and the totality of Tradition as = insignificant=20 matters. It appears that deep down inside, these individuals do not = believe=20 there is absolute Truth, that there is divine revelation. As a result,=20 controversies rage on the practical canons, that is, on which ones are = still=20 applicable and which are not, given the conditions of modern life.

Regrettably, the modernists always conclude that = Orthodoxy=20 should keep in step with the times. However, as Archbishop Averky points = out,=20 Christ said to the Apostles at the Mystical Supper, "You are not of the = world."=20 In the same way, the Church is not "of the world," and it never conforms = to the=20 world. Instead, the archbishop notes, the true Church of Christ:

... has always been, is, and will always be a = stranger to this=20 world. Separated from it, she is able to transmit the divine teachings = of the=20 Lord unchanged, because that separation has kept her unchanged, that is, = like=20 the immutable God Himself.

It has never been the understanding of the Church = that it must=20 adapt itself to societal or cultural standards. Instead, the faithful = must, by=20 the grace of God and in cooperation with Him, become divinized. = Moreover,=20 although the Western Churches are trying to keep in step with the pagan = culture=20 that surrounds them, one of the four signs of the true Church is that it = is=20 holy. The Orthodox Church is holy because it does not go the way = of the=20 world, but goes along the path willed by Jesus Christ.

The textbook creates additional confusion in this = matter with=20 its assertion that when and if a new council of the Church is assembled, = one of=20 its first tasks would be the revision and clarification of canon law. In = final=20 reply, it must be emphasized that while canons of an unalterable and = unchanging=20 character can be clarified =97 that is, explained and developed = in new and=20 different words, their essential meaning, it must be repeated, is = eternal and=20 unchanging, and they cannot be revised. As for the practical canons, = these are=20 not something to cast aside; rather their application is left up to a = bishop's=20 use of economy. (The word economy, from the Greek = economia, refers=20 to the fact that as part of a bishop's stewardship over the Church, when = there=20 is a genuine need, he may apply a canon in a stringent way for specific = pastoral=20 reasons, or he may even entirely dispense from the canon).

The importance of the Church's practical canons is = not lost to=20 Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos. He explains that:

It has been observed from Church history that in the = periods=20 when Christians had become secularized, many canons were formulated so = that=20 people could discern their spiritual instability, distinguish good from = evil,=20 and be guided on the path of a cure. So the law is not a human = invention, but a=20 revelation by God for man to be cured. Thus it is not a goal, but a = means, a=20 medicine necessary for man's cure. The wrong use of the law, changing it = from a=20 means to an end, from a medicine to an ideology, is an unhealthy = legalism which=20 constitutes Pharisaical justice and self-justification which do not save = man=20 [The Mind of the Orthodox Church, pp. 180-81].

22. What do you consider to have been the most = important=20 point made in this chapter?

Christ promised that the Holy Spirit would come to = guide the=20 Church in Truth (Jn 16:13). The most important point and the focus of = this=20 entire chapter is that in fulfillment of that promise, the Holy = Spirit guides=20 Christ's Church through all that is called Holy Tradition. The Holy = Spirit=20 has spoken =97 through Scripture, through the Ecumenical Councils and = the Creed,=20 through the Holy Fathers, the Liturgy, icons, canons, and through all = the things=20 that make up the Sacred Apostolic Tradition of the Orthodox Church.

 

8. God And = Man.

1. According to Fedorov, what is the Orthodox = social=20 program?

This Russian thinker stated that it is the dogma of = the Holy=20 Trinity.

2. Why do you think Fedorov made such a=20 statement?

The doctrine of the Holy Trinity, rather than being a = recondite=20 subject reserved for professional scholars, is something that has an = immense=20 practical importance for each individual Christian. All people are = caught up in=20 the struggle between good and evil. As Vladimir Lossky writes = epigrammatically=20 of this struggle, "Between the Trinity and hell, there is no other = choice."=20 Also, man is created in the image and likeness of God, and it is only = through a=20 correct understanding of the dogma of the Trinity that human beings can=20 understand who they are and what their Creator wants them to be. = People's=20 private lives depend on this understanding, as do their personal = relations with=20 their fellow human beings. It was for these reasons that Fedorov could = define=20 the Orthodox social program as the dogma of the Holy Trinity.

3. In paragraph one of this chapter, St. = Gregory Palamas=20 is quoted. Write out this quote.

In the middle of the fourteenth century, this Father = wrote, "No=20 single thing of all that is created has or ever will have the slightest=20 communion with the Supreme Nature or nearness to it."

4. Why does Orthodoxy make a distinction = between the=20 essence and the energies of God?

At first glance, there would appear to be a = contradiction=20 between the concept of God's divine transcendence and His divine = immanence.=20 Actually there is no inconsistency, for Orthodoxy distinguishes between = the=20 inaccessible essence and the uncreated and communicable = energies=20 of God.

The mystery of the Holy Trinity, since it has to do = with the=20 essence of God, is ultimately incomprehensible not only to discursive = reasoning,=20 but to intuition as well. God is absolutely transcendent, and His = essence is=20 invisible and incomprehensible and remains unapproachable.

On the other hand, God is not cut off from the world = He has=20 made: He is a living God Who comes down from above and communicates = Himself to=20 man in the form of deifying grace and divine light. Such are the = energies of=20 God: they are visible and perceivable manifestations that make the = divine life=20 accessible to man without taking away from the inaccessibility of God. = Thus,=20 people can behold God through His energies, but not His essence.

Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos explains that = this=20 teaching is not an isolated opinion of one Father alone, but that it is = the=20 teaching of the Orthodox Church. Many Holy Fathers have referred to the=20 distinction between essence and energy. It is found in the Bible, in the = first=20 Apostolic Fathers, in the Cappadocian Fathers, and especially in St. = Basil the=20 Great and in the great dogmatic theologian of the Church, St. John of = Damascus.=20 In the fourteenth century, St. Gregory Palamas developed further this = already=20 existing teaching and put forward its practical consequences and = dimensions.

5. God is a Trinity of three Persons, dwelling = in each=20 other by virtue of what?

Each of the three Persons of the Godhead, Father, Son = and Holy=20 Spirit, dwell in the other Two by a perpetual movement of love.

6. Why is the filioque, like all = questions=20 relating to Trinitarian theology, not trivial?

The textbook states that "since belief in the Trinity = lies at=20 the very heart of the Christian faith, a tiny difference in Trinitarian = theology=20 is bound to have repercussions upon every aspect of Christian life and = thought."=20 The filioque insertion did in fact have a disastrous effect upon = Western=20 theology.

7. Give a summary of your own understanding of = the=20 filioque question.

As noted in an earlier chapter, the Orthodox Church = to this day=20 retains the original text of the Nicaeo-Constantinopolitan Symbol = of=20 Faith (the Creed), while the Roman Catholic Church uses an altered = text.=20 The Second Ecumenical Council affirmed with its single voice the eighth = article=20 of the Creed, which states that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the = Father.=20 The Third Ecumenical Council, by prohibiting the issuance of any new = Creeds,=20 decisively confirmed the truth of the Orthodox Church's Creed. = The=20 significance of Rome's unlawful alteration and textual corruption of = the=20 authoritative text of the Creed will be examined here.

First, no individual part of the Church has any right = to tamper=20 with the Creed such as Rome did. The Creed is the very crystallization = of=20 Revelation in human words, unchanging and unchangeable, and it is the = common=20 treasure of the entire Church. Among all the dogmatic decrees of the = Church's=20 councils, the Ecumenical Councils themselves acknowledge the Creed as = primary=20 and fundamental, and they forbade any changes whatsoever in its = ideas or=20 its words, either by addition or subtraction. The Third Ecumenical = Council=20 handed down this decree, and it was repeated by the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth = and=20 Seventh Ecumenical Councils. Thus, the Latin Church stands condemned by = five=20 Ecumenical Councils which it itself recognizes are inspired by the Holy = Spirit.=20 In its unilateral and illicit addition of the filioque clause, = Rome=20 committed moral fratricide and sinned against the unity of the = Church.

Secondly, in its theological aspect, the = filioque=20 controversy centers on eternal relations within the Godhead, relations = which=20 existed before all ages between the Persons of the Father, Son and Holy = Spirit.=20 While Orthodoxy and Rome both agree that the Holy Spirit proceeds from = the=20 Father, Rome goes on to proclaim that the Holy Spirit likewise proceeds = from the=20 Son (the Latin filioque means and from the Son). Christ = Himself=20 stated that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father (Jn 15:26), = but=20 nowhere does Scripture speak of the Holy Spirit's proceeding from the = Son. The filioque addition, in its holding the Son to be an=20 additional source of the Godhead, detracts from the Father's unique = source of=20 the Godhead. Rome sees the principle of unity in the essence shared by = all three=20 Persons of the Trinity, and such a concept depersonalizes God's = unity.

Orthodoxy, following the teaching of the Cappadocian = Fathers,=20 affirms that there is one God because there is one Father. The Father is = the=20 source and cause of the Godhead and is the principle of unity among the = three=20 Persons of the Trinity. In this sense, Orthodoxy speaks of the = monarchy=20 of the Father. Both Son and Holy Spirit trace Their origin to Him, and = both are=20 seen in terms of Their relation to Him.

8. State the textbook's answer to the question, "But = if each of=20 the three Persons is distinct, what holds the Trinity together?"

As stated above, there is one God because there is = one Father.=20 The textbook explains that the Father is the cause or source of the = Godhead,=20 that He is the principle (arche) of unity among the Three. The = Father is=20 born of none and proceeds from none. Both Son and Holy Spirit trace = Their origin=20 to the Father: the Son is born of the Father "before all ages," and the = Holy=20 Spirit proceeds from the Father from all eternity.

9. What result does the textbook mention of = the Roman=20 Catholic divergence in the doctrine of the Holy Trinity?

The Latin Church's divergence in the doctrine of the = Holy=20 Trinity resulted in its seeing the principle of unity in the substance = or=20 essence which all three Persons share. While Orthodoxy sees the = principle of=20 God's unity as personal, Roman Catholicism does not.

10. In the question of the Holy Trinity, what is = meant by the=20 term proceed?

The term proceed refers to the Holy Spirit's = eternal=20 relations within the Godhead. It does not refer to the Holy Spirit's = temporal=20 mission to the world.

The Church believes that Christ had two births: the = one=20 eternal, in which He was born of the Father "before all ages," and the = other at=20 a point in time, in which He was born of the Virgin Mary. The same = distinction=20 is drawn between the Holy Spirit's eternal procession and His = temporal=20 mission of being sent to the world. The eternal procession refers to = the=20 relation which existed from all eternity within the Godhead. The = temporal=20 mission refers to the relation of God to creation.

Where the Holy Spirit's temporal mission to the world = is=20 concerned, both Orthodoxy and Rome agree that He is sent by the Son and = is the=20 Spirit of the Son. Where Orthodoxy and Rome disagree is in the matter of = eternal procession. When Orthodoxy says the Spirit proceeds from = the=20 Father alone, and when Rome says the Spirit proceeds from the Father = and from=20 the Son (filioque), they are referring to certain relations which = existed in=20 the Godhead from all eternity.

11. On what verse of Scripture is the Orthodox = position=20 based?

Orthodoxy bases its position on John 15:26. Christ = stated:=20 "When the Comforter is come, Whom I will send unto you from the Father, = even the=20 Spirit of Truth Who proceedeth from the Father, He shall testify = of Me."=20 Christ sends the Spirit (this is the temporal mission), but the = Spirit=20 proceeds from the Father (this is the eternal = procession).

This teaching is the clear and infallible teaching of = Christ,=20 of His Holy Church, of Sacred Scriptures, and of the Church's Creed, and = this=20 teaching was adhered to by Rome itself until its illicit addition of = one=20 word to the Creed. Nowhere does the Bible state that the Holy Spirit = proceeds=20 from the Son, but the Roman Catholic Church begs to differ with Christ, = with=20 Scriptures, with the Ecumenical Councils, and with the Creed which the = undivided=20 Church produced under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.

12. Certain Orthodox hierarchs attempted to = bridge the=20 gulf of understanding between Rome and the Holy Church. Can you explain = the=20 meaning of these attempts?

In the matter of the eternal procession of the Holy = Spirit, the=20 position that St. Photius maintained against the West was an eternal = procession=20 from the Father alone, and a temporal mission from the Son. Thirteenth = and=20 fourteenth-century writers, however, most notably St. Gregory of Cyprus, = Patriarch of Constantinople, and St. Gregory Palamas, Archbishop of=20 Thessalonica, went somewhat further in an attempt to bridge the gulf = between=20 East and West. While Photius spoke only of a temporal mission, these = writers=20 allowed an eternal manifestation of the Holy Spirit by the Son. They = also=20 admitted an eternal relation between the Son and the Spirit where = Photius had=20 spoken only of a temporal mission.

13. At what point did they draw the line, and = why?

Both Gregories drew the line and agreed with Photius = in the=20 essential matter that while the Holy Spirit is manifested by the Son, He = does=20 not proceed from the Son. The reason the Holy Spirit does not proceed = from the=20 Son is because God the Father is the unique origin and cause of the = Godhead.

14. Summarize in your own words the Orthodox = objections=20 to the Western practice regarding the filioque.

Michael Whelton, a convert from Roman Catholicism to = Eastern=20 Orthodoxy, remarks that:

As far back as I can remember when discussing Church = history=20 with friends, I can still hear myself saying, "But the Orthodox are = right on=20 [the] filioque." In fairness, I had to acknowledge that they had = a point=20 [Two Paths: Papal Monarchy =97 Collegial Tradition, p. 89].

Mr. Whelton goes on to state that the unity of the = undivided=20 Apostolic Church was expressed in the celebration of the Eucharist and = in the=20 recitation of the Nicaeo-Constantinopolitan Symbol of Faith, or Nicene = Creed.=20 This Creed, a declaration of faith confessed by the entire Church, = belongs to=20 the Church, and one part of the Church does not have the right to change = it=20 without the consent of all. Ecumenical Councils produced the Creed, and=20 Ecumenical Councils prohibited any changes in it. Rome was party to all = of these=20 things. Thus, if Rome wishes to make a change in the Creed, then an=20 Ecumenical Council is the only competent body to deal with it. Only an=20 Ecumenical Council has the right not to alter, but to amplify and = explain the=20 decisions reached at an earlier Council. For any part of the Church to = tamper=20 unilaterally with the Creed of the Ecumenical Councils could only create = enormous divisions. Mr. Whelton correctly notes that the Western = Churches'=20 altering the Creed represents an automatic lapse into heresy, and in = such a=20 state, no pronouncement by the pope in their favor could ever serve to = condone=20 them.

Regarding the theological issues of the = filioque=20 interpolation (also referred to as the Western doctrine of the double=20 procession), its logical consequence would have to be either a ditheism = or=20 semi-Sabellianism. (Sabellius was a second-century heretic who spoke of = one God=20 with three modes or aspects or manifestations. That is, he = falsely taught=20 that the same God appeared as the Father in the Old Testament, as the = Son in the=20 New Testament, and as the Holy Spirit in the life of the Church. Through = this=20 heresy, Sabellius abolished the personal mode of existence of each = Person of the=20 Holy Trinity. In other words, he denied that God is three distinct = Persons).=20 Since Western theology views the Son as well as the Father as the = principle or=20 source of the Godhead, the question arose among the Orthodox if Western = theology=20 held that there were two independent and separate sources of the = Trinity. As=20 such a concept would amount to a belief in two Gods, the answer is an = obvious=20 no. Two reunion councils =97 those of Lyons (1274) and Florence = (1438-39) =97 were=20 careful to point out that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and Son = "as from=20 one principle" (tanquam ab uno principio et unica spiratione). = Although=20 this explanation avoided ditheism, it was still objectionable to the = Orthodox in=20 that the Persons of the Father and the Son are not distinct, but are = rather=20 merged and confused. Orthodox theology sees the monarchy as the Father's = distinct characteristic and that He alone is the principle within the = Trinity.=20 In Western theology, the filioque extended the Father's distinct=20 characteristic to the Son as well, and the two Persons became fused into = one.=20 This misunderstanding was no more than a very old heresy =97 "Sabellius = reborn, or=20 rather some semi-Sabellian monster," as St. Photius described it.

The textbook develops the matter of semi-Sabellianism = further.=20 It explains that in Orthodox Trinitarian theology, the principle of = unity is a=20 personal one, as opposed to that in the West, which sees its unitary = principle=20 in the essence of God. In Latin Scholastic theology, the Persons of the = Trinity=20 are overshadowed by a common nature. This Western view conceives God not = so much=20 in personal and concrete terms as it does as an essence characterized by = various=20 relations. Thomas Aquinas capsulized this way of thinking in his = identification=20 of the Persons with the relations. Aquinas had a very barren idea of=20 personality, though, for the relations are not the Persons, but are the = personal=20 characteristics of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. "Personal = characteristics=20 do not constitute the person," St. Gregory Palamas stated, "but they=20 characterize the person." While these relations designate the Person, in = no way=20 do they exhaust the mystery of each.

Latin Scholastic theology, with its emphasis on the = essence of=20 the Trinity and its neglect of Their Persons, well-nigh turns God into = an=20 abstract idea. No longer is He the God of Abraham, Isaac and = Jacob in=20 such a system, but He becomes a remote and impersonal being, a God of = the=20 philosophers Whose existence must be proved by metaphysical arguments. = The=20 medieval Western theologians, in their various attempts at philosophical = "proofs" of God's existence, bequeathed to the Western world its = essential=20 concern with the question of whether or not God exists. This issue was = then=20 taken up by modern secular philosophy and can be seen in thinkers so = diverse as=20 Immanuel Kant, Bertrand Russell, and Ren=E9 Descartes. A very = significant part of=20 Western philosophical thought, either directly or peripherally, is = dedicated to=20 the question of God's existence. Even today, it is not unusual for an = intellect=20 to classify himself as a believer or an atheist (or an agnostic, in the = case of=20 the less bold). The way that a Westerner discusses religion and most = aspects of=20 theology is largely tied to the question of God's existence.

To learn of God by questioning His existence is the = Western=20 way, but not the Orthodox way. The Orthodox way is to assume the = existence of=20 God. Also, what is important is not that man can argue about the Deity, = but how=20 man can understand and reach the concrete and personal God, and how he = can be=20 united to Him.

One extremely destructive development of the Latin = Church's=20 false Trinitarian theology can be seen in the aftermath of the = de-Christianizing=20 Second Vatican Council. At that time, the offering of praise = to the=20 Holy Trinity was suppressed. God's name was dropped in many = places of=20 the new Mass, and references to any sort of a deity became vague and = deistic,=20 calling to mind the delta or grand architect of freemasonry, rather than = the One=20 True God, the Holy Trinity.

(Parenthetically, it is noteworthy that at the same = time the=20 Latin Church restrained the worship of the Holy Trinity, Pope = John XXIII=20 began to carry atop his pastoral staff a crucifix with broken = arms. This=20 same broken cross symbol was devised by satanists in the Middle Ages as = a=20 mockery of Christianity, and it has been used by all popes since the = Second=20 Vatican Council to show their solidarity with the forerunner forces of = the=20 antichrist. Few modern Catholics are aware of this symbolism, but it is=20 explained in detail by a pious English Roman Catholic writer in his book = The=20 Broken Cross, which gives other examples as well of the Latin = Church's=20 dabbling with diabolical phenomena ever since the 1960s).

The filioque addition is dangerous and = heretical in its=20 confusing the Persons and destroying the proper balance between the = unity and=20 diversity of the Godhead. The Trinity's oneness is stressed at the = expense of=20 the threeness, and God is conceived not in terms of concrete = personality, but in=20 terms of abstract essence.

In addition, Western theology has in actual fact (if = not in=20 theory) subordinated the Holy Spirit to the Son of God. Fr. Victor = Potapov notes=20 that even the most cursory glance through Western theological texts is=20 sufficient to convince one as to what an insignificant place Roman = Catholic=20 theologians allocate to the activity of the Holy Spirit in the world, in = the=20 Church, and in the lives of individual Christians.

The consequences of the filioque =97 the = overemphasis on=20 the unity of God and the subordination of the Holy Spirit =97 have been=20 instrumental in distorting the Roman Catholic doctrine of the Church, = for every=20 false teaching about the Holy Spirit strikes against the dogma = concerning the=20 Church. Because of the inattention to-, and lack of understanding of-, = the role=20 of the Holy Spirit, the Latin West has come to regard the Church = largely as=20 an earthly institution, organized and administered according to the = principles=20 of worldly authority and juridical law. And where the West stressed = God's=20 unity at the expense of His diversity, so likewise did the concept of = Church=20 unity triumph over diversity, the result of which became the complete = centralization of the Latin Church and is overemphasis on papal=20 authority.

East and West's two differing concepts of God are = inextricably=20 bound up with two different concepts of the Church. The underlying = causes of=20 the Latin Church's breaking away from the ancient Church of Christ in = the Great=20 Schism of 1054 =97 those of papal claims and the filioque =97 are very = much related=20 to one another.

15. What do you consider to be the most = important point=20 made in this section?

The most important aspect is the Orthodox Trinitarian = theology=20 dealing with God's attributes. As the textbook mentions, God is = absolutely=20 transcendent, He is not cut off from the world He has made, He is = personal =97=20 that is, Trinitarian, One Essence in Three Persons, and He is an=20 Incarnate God.

 

9. Man: His Creation, Vocation = and=20 Failure.

1. For what purpose was man made?

He was made for fellowship with God.

2. The creation of man was an act of = Whom?

The creation of man was an act of God.

3. What is meant by the a) image = and b)=20 likeness of God in the creation of man?

These words are from the "prophecy of the past," as = St. John=20 Chrysostom calls Moses' exalted vision of what the world was in the=20 beginning.

And God said: let Us make man in Our image, after Our = likeness:=20 and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl = of the=20 air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every = creeping thing=20 that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in His own image, in = the image=20 of God created He him; male and female created He them (Gen = 1:26-27).

Regarding this act of creation of mankind, = Metropolitan=20 Philaret, former First Hierarch of the Russian Church in Exile, = explained that=20 "the Creator made man after His image and likeness and placed the = imprint of=20 this image on man's very being, on human nature itself." Also commenting = on this=20 passage, the Holy Fathers draw a distinction between the words = image and=20 likeness.

Orthodox theology lays a tremendous emphasis on the=20 image of God in man. Image is taken to mean a share in the = spiritual=20 attributes of the Creator. Image is that which distinguishes man from = animal=20 creation, and it includes qualities of rationality, free will, and man's = sense=20 of moral responsibility, qualities with which every man, from the first = moment=20 of his existence, is endowed by God. To be created in God's image means = that=20 people are God's offspring and that between God and man is an essential=20 similarity. However sinful a man may become, the image of God in him is=20 indestructible. As the Fathers state, the image is given to us in full = and=20 cannot be lost. Moreover, in patristic theology it is said that the = image of God=20 in man is stronger than in angels, precisely because man has a = nous (the=20 eye of the soul), word and spirit, the spirit quickening the body joined = to it,=20 which is not the case with the angels.

The likeness of God, however, is given in the = beginning=20 only potentially, and man himself was to work on attaining its = perfection.=20 Likeness is a goal, it is what man must aim at and work for. Man is = created in=20 God's image and can know and have communion with His Creator and = participate in=20 His nature. Man is also made to become ever more like God for all = eternity. If=20 man properly uses the faculty for communion with God, he acquires by = degree a=20 divine likeness. Man becomes, in the words of St. John of Damascus, = "assimilated=20 to God through virtue." Likeness, or moral perfection, is something man = is=20 called to acquire through his own efforts and moral choices (though in=20 conjunction with the grace of God, of course). As Archpriest Seraphim = Slobodskoy=20 comments:

The likeness of God depends on the direction of = spiritual=20 abilities. This requires that man work on himself spiritually. If a man = strives=20 for truth and good, for the righteousness of God, then he becomes like = God.=20 However, if a man loves only himself, lies, makes enemies, does evil, = cares only=20 for earthly goods, thinks only about his body and does not care for his = soul,=20 then such a person ceases to be in the likeness of God and becomes in = his life=20 like a beast, and can finally become like an evil spirit, a devil = [The Law of=20 God, p. 112].

Concerning the same passage quoted above from the = book of=20 Genesis, it is important to note that the name of God (Elohim in = the=20 Hebrew text) has the grammatical form of the plural number. = Moreover, the=20 first person pronoun Us and the possessive adjectives Our = are=20 likewise plural.

The same plural form of the name of God = appears even=20 earlier in the original Hebrew text of the Bible. It appears in the = very=20 first lines (Genesis 1:1), along with the verb created = (bara),=20 which is in the singular. Thus, the beginning lines of Old = Testament=20 Scripture start out by revealing the singular essence of the = Persons=20 (plural) of the Holy Trinity. Archpriest Seraphim Slobodskoy explains = that these=20 very first lines of the Bible say, as it were, "In the beginning, Gods = (the=20 three Persons of the Holy Trinity), created Heaven and earth."

Another of the Old Testament passages that expresses = the=20 Tri-Unity of God (there are twelve such passages) is that of = Isaiah 6:3.=20 The Seraphim who stand around the throne of God offer doxology in = triple=20 form, saying, "Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts." The Fathers = see this=20 passage as an indirect reference to the Holy Trinity, to God's = Tri-Personal Being.

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky lists other = indications of=20 the Trinity of Persons of God. This truth, Fr. Michael notes, is=20 expressed in the Old Testament in a veiled way, only half-revealed, = beginning,=20 it bears repeating, in the very first lines of the Bible, in Genesis = 1:1. As=20 another writer adds, God did not yet reveal Himself as a Triune = God lest=20 the Hebrews apostatize to the polytheism of their neighbors and worship = false=20 "gods," that is, demons, for "the gods of the heathens are demons" (Ps = 95:5=20 [Russian Bible], Ps 96:5 [English ]). As Fr. Michael concludes, the Old=20 Testament testimonies of the Holy Trinity are revealed and explained in = the=20 light of the Christian faith.

In the New Testament, the plurality of the = Tri-Hypostatic God=20 is more explicitly revealed to be the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, One = in=20 Essence, Ever-Existing, Undivided and Indivisible. As Archpriest = Vladimir=20 Glindsky explains:

The mystery of the Tri-Unity was shown in part in the = Old=20 Testament, and clearly proclaimed in the Gospel. The Lord Jesus Christ = commanded=20 belief in the Holy Trinity and defined Its Persons. His Holy Apostles = taught the=20 Christians the worship of the indivisible Triune God. After the = Apostles, the=20 consciousness of the Church always piously protected the faith in the = Holy=20 Trinity. In the fourth century, the Ecumenical Councils, defending the = Apostolic=20 faith from heresies, promulgated dogmas concerning the individual = attributes of=20 the Persons of the Trinity, thus creating the Creed. Therefore, the = Orthodox=20 Christian believes, serves, worships [the Holy Trinity and protects] = with all=20 his might his faith in the Trinitarian Truth ["Fundamentals of the = Orthodox=20 Christian Faith," Orthodox Life, vol. 51, no. 1, 2001, pp. = 30-31].

4. Quote the scriptural verse which the = textbook cites=20 to show that we are God's offspring.

I said, you are gods, and all of you sons of the Most = High ( Ps=20 81:6).

5. Outline the difference between the teaching = of=20 Augustine and that of the Orthodox Church with regard to man's original = state in=20 Eden.

Augustine depicted man in his primordial state as = being endowed=20 from the start with all possible wisdom and knowledge. Adam had, to his = way of=20 thinking, a realized rather than a potential perfection. Subsequent to = this=20 teaching, Augustine's picture of Adam generally became accepted in the = West.

Orthodoxy teaches that man was perfect in his first = creation,=20 but it stresses that the perfection was in the potential sense. Having = been=20 endowed in his creation with God's image, man was called to acquire = God's=20 likeness through his own endeavors in cooperating with God's grace. Adam = started=20 out in innocence and simplicity. "He was a child, not yet having his=20 understanding perfected," St. Irenaeus wrote. "It was necessary that he = should=20 grow and so come to his perfection." In other words, God set Adam on the = right=20 path, but Adam had a long journey ahead of him before he reached his = final=20 goal.

6. The textbook presents a significant quote = from St.=20 Gregory Palamas on the nature of man. Write out this quote.

St. Gregory Palamas wrote: "When God is said to have = made man=20 according to His image, the word man means neither the soul by = itself nor=20 the body by itself, but the two together."

7. Why does the priest (or deacon) cense the = people as=20 well as the icons in the church?

In censing the faithful, the priest or deacon is = saluting the=20 image (or icon) of God in each person. Censing also expresses the = desire=20 that the grace of God might envelop the faithful, even as the smoke of = incense=20 envelops the Church.

The practice of censing is sometimes misunderstood by = those=20 outside the Church. This writer heard the remark, for example, that if = Christ=20 were to return to the world today, the only Church in Christendom He = would not=20 recognize is the Orthodox Church as it had gone so far astray through = its=20 practice of censing. Perhaps such a notion is not uncommon among = individuals of=20 mainstream religious groups that have stripped all mystery and ritual = from their=20 worship services. However, the assertion is not tenable inasmuch as = censing was=20 instituted in worship by God Himself, as is shown in the book of Exodus=20 (cf. Exodus 25:6, 30:7-9, 34:15, 40:5,27, et al.).

Censing is an expression of worship, of deep = thanksgiving to=20 God's countless blessings to mankind, the greatest of which is His = sending His=20 Only-Begotten Son to sacrifice Himself to save the world. Orthodox use = incense=20 as an offering to God, like the offering of Abel's altar that burned and = gave=20 off a clean smoke that arose to Heaven (Gen 4:1-7). They also offer = incense to=20 express their infinite gratitude to Christ, the Saviour of people's = souls, just=20 as the myrrh-bearing women brought perfumes when they went to the tomb = to=20 venerate Him.

It is for these reasons that the priest censes before = the holy=20 altar table, the icons, and all of the church at certain moments during = the=20 services. Censing also expresses the worshipers' respect and reverence = for these=20 holy things. The priest censes especially during the Divine Sacrifice, = when the=20 bread and wine become the All-Pure Body and Blood of Christ.

Incense is also a symbolic representation of a heart = praying to=20 God, Moreover, it expresses a desire that the prayer of Christians = gathered in=20 church would be heartfelt and truly fervent, and that it might ascend to = Heaven=20 like the smoke of incense. The prayer that accompanies incense does = indeed rise=20 to Heaven. As Holy Scriptures state: "Let my prayer be counted as = incense before=20 Thee" (Ps 140:2), and "The smoke of incense, which came with the prayers = of the=20 saints, ascended up before God out of the angel's hands" (Rev 8:3,4). = When being=20 censed by a priest or deacon, Christians respond with a bow.

8. When God created man, He did not want a = slave. What=20 did He want man to be to Him?

God wanted man to be a son to Him.

9. What sort of doctrine of grace does the = Orthodox=20 Church reject?

It rejects any doctrine of grace which infringes upon = man's=20 freedom.

10. What is the meaning of the term=20 synergy?

Synergy, or synergia in Greek, is from = syn (with)=20 and ergon (work; whence synergic, synergetic, synergism, = &c.), and it=20 means cooperation. St. Clement of Alexandria coined the word in = order to=20 express the action of two energies joined together: grace and human = will.

11. Quote the verse of Scripture which the = textbook=20 offers in order to demonstrate the doctrine of synergy.

We are fellow-workers [synergoi] with God (1 = Cor.=20 3:9).

12. Based on the brief and light discussion of = the=20 matter in the textbook, give your understanding of the difference = between the=20 Orthodox and the Western understanding of grace and free will.

Orthodoxy believes that man has his own part to play = if he is=20 to achieve full fellowship with God. Although man can do nothing toward = this end=20 without his human will being anticipated and upheld by God's grace, and = although=20 the work that God does is of immeasurably greater importance than the = work done=20 by man, man nevertheless must make his own contribution to the common = work.=20 Man's work toward fellowship with God is the surrender of His will and = the=20 conformity to divine will, inasmuch as man's will (rather than = his=20 intellect or feeling) is the main human means of union with God. = "Sacrifice and=20 offering Thou wouldst not.... Lo, I come to do Thy will, 0 God" (Heb = 10:5, 9). A=20 person's union with God requires the cooperation of two unequal, but = equally=20 necessary forces: divine grace and human will.

The textbook does not deal at great length on the = Western=20 controversies concerning grace and predestination. However, it does = state that=20 the West, since the time of Augustine and the Pelagian heresy, has seen = the=20 matter of grace and free will in different terms, and it states that = those=20 brought up in the Augustinian tradition (particularly Calvinists) have = viewed=20 the Orthodox idea of synergy with suspicion since they feel it ascribes = too much=20 to man's free will, and too little to God.

13. Who is the supreme example of synergy? = Give your own=20 explanation of why the textbook makes such a statement.

The Theotokos is the supreme example of synergy. The = textbook=20 can make such a statement since Mary's fiat and her entire life stand as = the=20 greatest possible example of cooperation between the free will of man = and the=20 purpose of God. God, Who always respects human liberty, did not want to = become=20 incarnate without Mary's consent, and He therefore waited for her = response.=20 Although Mary had the choice to refuse, her reply was, "Behold the = handmaid of=20 the Lord; be it done unto me according to your word" (Lk 1:38). This = response=20 was far from a passive one, for Mary was an active participant in the = mystery.=20 As Nicholas Cabasilas comments:

The Incarnation was not only the work of the Father, = of His=20 Power and His Spirit... but it was also the work of the will and faith = of the=20 Virgin.... Just as God became incarnate voluntarily, so He wished that = His=20 Mother should bear Him freely and with her full consent [On the=20 Annunciation].

Moreover, as St. Nikolai Velimirovich explains, Eve = first fell=20 into sin, and her sin took place in the brightness of Paradise, where = everything=20 protected her from sin. Mary, on the other hand, was the first to = overcome all=20 temptations, and she did so in the darkness of the world, where = everything pulls=20 towards sin. Thus, Mary=92s obedient submission to God=92s will stands = in direct=20 contrast to Eve=92s disobedience in the Garden of Eden, and for this = reason, Mary=20 is the New Eve.

14. The textbook quotes Revelation 3:20 in = demonstrating=20 the Orthodox teaching of synergy. Write out that verse, and also write = out the=20 textbook's explanation of that verse.

Behold, I stand at the door and knock: if anyone = hears My voice=20 and opens the door, I will come in (Rev 3:20).

The textbook explains:

God knocks, but waits for man to open the door =97 He = does not=20 break it down. The grace of God invites all but compels none. In the = words of=20 John Chrysostom: "God never draws anyone to Himself by force and = violence. He=20 wishes all men to be saved, but forces no one." "It is for God to grant = His=20 grace," said St. Cyril of Jerusalem (+386); "your task is to accept that = grace=20 and to guard it." But it must not be imagined that because a man accepts = and=20 guards God's grace, he thereby earns merit. God's gifts are = always free=20 gifts, and man can never have any claims upon his Maker. But man, while = he=20 cannot merit salvation, must certainly work for it, since "faith = without=20 works is dead" (James 2:17).

15. Summarize your understanding of the difference = between the=20 Orthodox and the Augustinian doctrines of the fall and the first human = sin. Be=20 sure to discuss the two concepts of the fate of unbaptized = children.

Up to a point, Orthodoxy, Rome and classical = Protestantism are=20 all in fairly close agreement concerning the ancestral sin (or what = Western=20 Christians call the original sin). God gave Adam a free will = either to=20 accept or reject his calling to live in union with divine law and rule = over all=20 creation. Adam was seduced into thinking that he could become like God = solely by=20 his own effort and will, and he rejected his calling and turned aside = from the=20 path marked out for him by God. The fall lay in Adam's disobedience to = the will=20 of his Creator; he elevated his own will against God's, and in so doing, = he=20 separated himself from God.

Adam's rebellion resulted in a new form of existence: = disease=20 and death entered in. In turning away from God, Who is immortality and = life, man=20 defiles his humanity with evil and puts himself in a state contrary to = nature.=20 This unnatural condition eventually led to the disintegration of Adam's = physical=20 being and to his physical death, and the same consequences extended to = all his=20 descendants, to the whole human race. As St. Paul repeatedly insists, we = are all=20 members of one another, and if one member suffers, the whole body = suffers. Thus,=20 by virtue of this mysterious unity of all mankind, not only Adam, but = the whole=20 human race becomes subject to mortality.

The disintegration also goes beyond the mere physical = level:=20 since man was cut off from God, Adam and his descendants were brought = under the=20 rule of evil and death. All humans share the same tragic fate: all are = born into=20 a world that "lies in wickedness" (1 Jn 5: 19), one "groaning in = travail" (Rom=20 8:22); all are born into a devil's princedom where it is easy to do evil = and=20 hard to do good. Man's will is weakened and perverted by what the Greeks = call=20 desire and the Latins concupiscence. All human beings are = subject=20 to these spiritual effects of the ancestral sin.

Beyond this juncture, East and West are not in = complete=20 agreement as Blessed Augustine of Hippo's teaching on grace and free = will is not=20 in harmony with the consensus Patrum, the consensus of the = Fathers.=20 Blessed Augustine was the only main theologian the early Western Church = had,=20 whereas in the Eastern Church there were many. Thus, theology in the = East was=20 more balanced, including the theology on salvation. The Orthodox Church = holds a=20 less exalted view of the state of man prior to the fall, and it also = sees the=20 consequences of the fall in less severe terms than the West. Where = Augustine=20 (and thus the West) held that man fell from a state of all wisdom and = knowledge,=20 Orthodoxy believes that Adam fell from a state of undeveloped = simplicity. Thus=20 the East is less severe than the West in its judgment of Adam's=20 transgression.

Undoubtedly the fall resulted in the darkening of = man's mind=20 and the impairing of his willpower so that he could no longer hope to = attain the=20 likeness of God. However, Orthodoxy does not teach that Adam's fall = deprived man=20 completely of God's grace (although after the fall, grace acts on man = from the=20 outside rather than from within). Orthodoxy rejects Calvin's view that = after the=20 fall man was completely depraved and entirely lacking in good desires. = Orthodoxy=20 likewise rejects Augustine's view that man is under "a harsh necessity" = of=20 committing sin, and that "man's nature was overcome by the fault into = which it=20 fell, and so came to lack freedom" [On the Perfection of Man's = Righteousness, IV-9]. This pessimistic view came from the belief = that the=20 human race was not only wounded by Adam's transgression, but also = inherited his=20 guilt and thus was deprived of God's grace. (At the end of his life, = Augustine=20 wrote an entire book of retractions, in which he deferred to the = judgment of the=20 Church all he had ever written). Even though God's likeness can be = distorted by=20 sin, man still remains created in the image of God, and that image can = never be=20 destroyed. In the words of a hymn sung at the Orthodox funeral service = for the=20 laity: "I am the image of Thine inexpressible glory, even though I bear = the=20 wounds of sin." And because man still retains the image of God, he = still=20 retains a free will, however restricted in scope it becomes because = of sin.=20 St. Dositheus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, explained that even after the = fall, God=20 "takes not away from man the power to will =97 to will to obey or not to = obey Him"=20 [Confessions, Decree iii]. Upholding the idea of synergy, = Orthodoxy=20 rejects any interpretation of the fall which discards the idea of human=20 freedom.

The idea of original guilt taught by Augustine = (and=20 which is still accepted in a mitigated form by the Roman Church) is = rejected by=20 the vast majority of Orthodox theologians. An occasional Augustinian = view on the=20 fall would creep into some Orthodox literature in times past, but it = usually=20 took place as a result of Western influence, such as the Scholastic = influence on=20 Kievan Russia at the time of Peter of Moghila. Most Eastern theologians = hold=20 that men automatically inherit the corruption and mortality of Adam, but = not=20 Adam's guilt. Men are guilty only insofar as they choose to imitate = Adam.

Most Western Christians hold that nothing a man does = in his=20 fallen and unredeemed state can be pleasing to God since all actions are = tainted=20 by original guilt. The Anglican Church teaches that works before = justification=20 have the nature of sin and cannot be pleasing to God, and likewise the = Latin=20 Church speaks of justificatio prima and justificatio = secunda, and=20 the impossibility of man's actions being pleasing to God before Baptism = and=20 justification. All Orthodox would be very hesitant to think in these = terms, for=20 Orthodoxy's view of fallen mankind is nowhere near as harsh and = condemnatory as=20 the Augustinian or Calvinist view.

Also, Orthodoxy has never taught that unbaptized = infants,=20 because of their taint of original guilt, are condemned to hell (a view=20 advocated by Augustine and many others in the West), nor has Orthodoxy = ever=20 maintained that they go to limbo. According to Roman Catholic = theology,=20 limbo, from limbus infantum or puerum, is a place where = babies are=20 consigned who died without actual sin (personal sin), but who did not = have their=20 original sin washed away in Baptism. The word limbus first = appeared in=20 Thomas Aquinas' Summa Theologica, which declares that unbaptized = infants=20 are "excluded from the full blessedness of the beatific vision." This = teaching=20 was declared de fide by the Second Council of Lyons (1274) and = confirmed=20 by the Council of Florence (1439), and the teaching is generally = accepted by=20 Roman theologians.

St. Gregory of Nyssa wrote a treatise entitled = Concerning=20 Infants Snatched Away Prematurely. In it, this Father states that = infants=20 departed from life neither find themselves in a painful state nor become = equal=20 to those who have struggled to be purified by every virtue. They are in = God's=20 providence. St. Gregory adds that anyway, the journey to God and = participation=20 in the uncreated light constitute a natural state of the soul, and = infants=20 cannot be deprived of these things. He concludes by noting that by the = power of=20 divine grace, infants can attain deification.

Even though Orthodoxy believes that man retained a = free will=20 after the fall and still was capable of good works, the East would = certainly=20 find common ground with the West in the belief that man's sin has set up = a=20 barrier between God and man, a barrier that man can never break down by = his own=20 efforts. Sin stood in the way of union with God, and man needed to be = saved.=20 Because man could not draw near to God, God came to man. As Bishop = Alexander of=20 Buenos Aires and South America of the Russian Church in Exile instructs = in this=20 regard: "Inasmuch as people, having sinned out of thoughtlessness and = having=20 fallen away from God, turned out to be too weak to repulse the onslaught = of the=20 powers of darkness, the Son of God was obliged to come into our world = and to=20 raise up a war against them."

16. What word does the textbook use to define = the act of=20 God's Incarnation?

The textbook defines God's Incarnation as an act of = God's=20 philanthropia. It interprets this word as God's loving-kindness = towards=20 mankind.

17. Would God have become incarnate even if = man had not=20 fallen?

It is the view of many Eastern writers =97 Saints = Maximus the=20 Confessor and Isaac the Syrian, among them =97 that even had man never = fallen, God=20 in His love for mankind would still have become man. The Incarnation, = then, is=20 not seen simply as an answer to the fall, but as part of the eternal = purpose of=20 God.

18. Because of the fall, the Incarnation of God the = Word became=20 even more than an act of love. It also became an act of what?

Because of the fall, the Incarnation became an act of = salvation. By uniting man and God in His Person, God the Word reopened = the way=20 for men to be "at one" with God. Christ demonstrated in His Person what = the true=20 likeness of God is, and by His saving and redeeming sacrifice, He = put=20 that likeness back within the reach of man. Christ, the New and Final = Adam,=20 entered the world to reverse the effect of the first Adam's = disobedience.

19. Write out the quote of St. Theophan the = Recluse.=20 Explain this quote.

St. Theophan the Recluse (+1894), a Russian bishop = and an=20 ascetic of the Orthodox Church, wrote: "Behind the veil of Christ's = flesh,=20 Christians behold the Triune God." In these words the bishop is = emphasizing the=20 divine glory of Christ, that in addition to His being born in the = human=20 flesh, Christ is eternally-born of the Un-Originate Father. The Orthodox = doctrine of Christ, as defined in Holy Scriptures and in the Ecumenical=20 Councils, is that He is true God and true man, one Person in two = natures,=20 without separation and confusion, a single Person, but endowed with two = wills=20 and two energies. Christ is "the image of the invisible God" (Col 1:15). = "In Him=20 dwelleth all the fullness of the Godhead bodily" (Col 2:9). Thus the = person who=20 sees Christ sees God the Father. Christ is "true God from true God," the = Nicene=20 Creed states, "of one essence with the Father." He is the "reflection of = the=20 glory of God and the express image of His Person" (Heb 1:13). As = Christ's=20 beloved disciple wrote: "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was = with=20 God, and the Word was God" (Jn 1:1).

20. At what two moments in Christ's life was = His divine=20 glory made especially manifest?

The first great manifestation of Christ's divine = glory was at=20 the Transfiguration, when the uncreated light of Christ's Godhead shone = like the=20 sun, and the Apostles Peter, James and John saw that "in Him dwelleth = all the=20 fullness of the Godhead bodily" (Col 2:9). (The biblical accounts do not = mention=20 the name of the mountain, but St. Cyril of Jerusalem assumes that it was = Mount=20 Tabor). The second great manifestation was at the Resurrection, when = Christ=20 swallowed up death forever and rose triumphant from the dead.

21. Write out in full the two quotations given = on page=20 231 of the textbook.

Through all the vicissitudes of her history, the = Greek Church=20 has been enabled to preserve something of the very spirit of the first = age of=20 Christianity. Her Liturgy still enshrines that element of sheer joy in = the=20 Resurrection of the Lord that we find in so many of the early Christian=20 writings. (P. Hammond, The Waters of Marah).

The theme of the Resurrection of Christ binds = together all=20 theological concepts and realities of Eastern Christianity and unites = them in a=20 harmonious whole. (0. Rousseau, "Incarnation et anthropologie en = orient et en=20 Occident," from Irenikon, vol. 26).

22. Write out the three hymns given on page = 232 of the=20 textbook, and explain the point that the textbook is trying to make with = each of=20 them.

He Who clothes Himself with light as with a = garment,

Stood naked at the judgment.

On His cheek He received the blows

From the hands which He had formed.

The lawless multitude nailed to the Cross

The Lord of Glory.

Today is hanged upon the tree

He Who hanged the earth in the midst of the = waters.

A crown of thorns crowns Him

Who is the King of the angels.

He is wrapped about with the purple of mockery

Who wraps the heavens in the clouds.

We worship Thy Passion, O Christ:

Show us also Thy glorious Resurrection!

I magnify Thy sufferings,

I praise Thy burial and Thy Resurrection,

Shouting, Lord, glory to Thee!

It is readily apparent to any outside observer that = the joyful=20 spirit of the Resurrection pervades the entire life of the Orthodox = Church.=20 Because of Orthodoxy's devotion to the divine glory of the Lord, = however, it=20 cannot be assumed that the Church overlooks Christ's humanity or = minimizes the=20 importance of the Cross. A common and incorrect assertion is that the = East=20 concentrates on the Risen Christ, while the West concentrates on Christ=20 Crucified. The textbook explains that through these three Great Friday = hymns,=20 the East and West simply look at the Crucifixion in different ways.

The first hymn shows that Orthodoxy does not think of = the=20 Lord's human agony and distress simply by itself, but rather in terms of = the=20 contrast between Christ's outward humiliation and His hidden, inward = majesty.=20 The second hymn sees in the Innocent Sufferer not only the suffering = humanity=20 of Christ, but a suffering God on the Cross. In the third = hymn, the=20 textbook is showing that behind Christ's bleeding and broken flesh, = Orthodoxy=20 still discerns the Triune God.

Orthodoxy sees that the Crucifixion and Resurrection = are but a=20 single action, and they are never separated. Even in the sadness of = Great=20 Friday, the Church contemplates the Resurrection of Christ. Golgotha is = a=20 Theophany (a divine manifestation). Calvary points to the empty tomb, = and the=20 Cross of Christ is a sign of Christ's complete victory.

23. Write out the prayer from the first = exorcism before=20 Holy Baptism. From this prayer, can you explain why it is important to = use the=20 correct of the Lord's Prayer (deliver us from the = evil-one)?

Also, which verse from the epistle to the Hebrews = refers to the=20 last line of this prayer?

The textbook gives this prayer from the first = exorcism before=20 Holy Baptism:

The Lord came into the world and dwelt among men, = that He might=20 destroy the tyranny of the devil and set man free. On the tree He = triumphed over=20 the powers which opposed Him, when the sun was darkened and the earth = was=20 shaken, when the graves were opened and the bodies of the saints arose. = By death=20 He destroyed death, and brought to naught him who had the power of = death.

The translation "deliver us from evil" in the = Lord's=20 Prayer is incorrect. Christ stated: "Deliver us from the = evil-one."=20 The "evil-one" means crafty or cunning personality, and this name = refers=20 to the devil =97 the main source of all evil in the world. Temptations = may arise=20 from many different sources: from people, from unfavorable living = conditions,=20 but, chiefly, from our passions. For this reason we meekly confess our = spiritual=20 weakness at the end of the prayer to our Heavenly Father, asking Him to = keep us=20 from sin and to defend us from the intrigues of the prince of darkness = =97 the=20 devil.

24. Outline your understanding of the difference = between the=20 Orthodox and non-Orthodox understandings of Christ's = Crucifixion.

Those brought up in the tradition of the medieval and = post-medieval West view Christ's Crucifixion in isolation from the = Resurrection=20 and so come to stress Christ's suffering humanity at the expense of the = image of=20 Christ as a suffering God. The West dwells on the Man of Sorrows and = sees Christ=20 as the Victim, whereas the East sees Him as the Victor.

Moreover, Western Christians have been inclined to = view the=20 Crucifixion as an act of satisfaction or substitution meant to appease = the wrath=20 of the Father, thus making it take on penal or juridical aspects. = Orthodoxy, on=20 the other hand, sees the Crucifixion as Christ's triumphant victory over = the=20 powers of evil, and it sees the Cross as an emblem of that victory. St. = John=20 Chrysostom said: "I call Him King, because I see Him crucified." That is = to say,=20 Orthodoxy sees Christ as the victorious King not in spite of the = Crucifixion,=20 but because of it.

25. Christ's work of redemption cannot be = considered=20 apart from what?

Christ's work of redemption cannot be considered = apart from the=20 Holy Spirit's work of sanctification.

26. Write out St. Seraphim of Sarov's = description of the=20 whole purpose of the Christian life.

St. Seraphim of Sarov (+1833), one of the most = revered of=20 Russian saints, explained that:

Prayer, fasting, vigils and all other Christian = practices,=20 however good they may be in themselves, certainly do not constitute the = aim of=20 our Christian life: they are but the indispensable means of attaining = that aim.=20 For the true aim of the Christian life is the acquisition of the Holy = Spirit of=20 God. As for fasts, vigils, prayer and almsgiving, and other good works = done in=20 the name of Christ, they are only the means of acquiring the Holy Spirit = of=20 God.

Concerning this explanation, in his extensive = research on=20 ancient African Orthodox Christianity, Fr. Paisius Altschul shows that = the path=20 of influence of Egyptian monasticism has been traced from the Egyptian = Thebaid=20 to the farthest corners of the Christian world. In Russia, as elsewhere, = he=20 notes, ascetic recluses patterned their spiritual struggle on the = monastic=20 principles that had been developed in the Egyptian desert. As for St. = Seraphim,=20 although he was separated by fifteen hundred years from the Desert = Fathers, the=20 spirituality was the same. Fr. Paisius also notes that the saint did not = claim=20 that his teaching was anything new or unique, but only that it had been = lost. He=20 further explains that St. Seraphim's ideas are to be seen in the = homilies of St.=20 Macarius the Great of Egypt. Both saints often use the same words, = images and=20 parables, and both describe the need to acquire the Holy Spirit. = Likewise, both=20 explain the Gospel parable of the ten virgins in the same way, stating = that the=20 oil needed for the lamps is the grace of the Holy Spirit, and stating = that the=20 acquisition of the Holy Spirit is the oil that the virgins lacked. The=20 similarities between the two are striking. Fr. Paisius concludes that = the point=20 is not whether St. Seraphim knew the homilies of St. Macarius the Great, = but=20 that both saints were partakers of the same tradition and were imbued = with the=20 same Holy Spirit.

27. According to Vladimir Lossky, what is summed up = in these=20 words of St. Seraphim?

Vladimir Lossky, an Orthodox theological writer, = states that=20 the saint's words sum up the whole spiritual tradition of the Orthodox=20 Church.

28. Summarize your understanding of the work of the = Holy Spirit=20 in the Church.

The Life-giving Holy Spirit is the third Person of = the Holy and=20 Life-creating Trinity, and He is completely one with the Father and the = Son.=20 Concerning Christ's work of redemption and the Holy Spirit's work of=20 sanctification, they are very much interconnected. As St. Athanasius = taught in=20 this regard, "The Word took flesh that we might receive the Holy = Spirit."=20 Moreover, because the Church is the Body of Christ, it is also the = temple and=20 dwelling-place of the Holy Spirit. St. Irenaeus instructed that "where = the=20 Church is, there is the Holy Spirit, and where the Spirit is, there is = the=20 Church."

The Holy Spirit came to the Christian Church at = Pentecost (Acts=20 2: 3) as the final fulfillment of Christ's earthly mission, and as the=20 completion of the Old Testament prophecy that in the time of the = Messiah-King,=20 the Spirit of God would be "poured out on all flesh" (Joel 2:28, Acts = 1:14).=20 With His descent, the Apostles were given the gift of inspired preaching = and the=20 gift of preaching in various languages previously unknown to them. = Regarding=20 this event, which is celebrated every year on the feast of Pentecost, it = is=20 explained that:

The Holy Spirit descended in the form of tongues of = fire to=20 show that He is not separate from the living Word and also to empower = the Holy=20 Apostles with the use of words, for they were to teach the multitudes = and bring=20 them to Christ. He descended, then, in the form of fire to show, on the = one=20 hand, that God is a consuming fire, while on the other hand, the need of = purification, and His grace rested upon them in tongues. In former times = those=20 who were of one language were confused and divided into a multitude of = tongues,=20 but now those who knew only one language received a multitude of tongues = so that=20 they could gather those of different languages who were scattered to the = far=20 reaches of the world. This all happened on a day of festival so that = there would=20 be a larger number gathered together, and so that through them the news = would be=20 spread far and wide. Also, so that those who had been present at the = time of=20 Pascha and who had seen all that had happened to Christ would have = reason to be=20 amazed. This happened on the day of Pentecost because it was fitting = that the=20 grace of the Holy Spirit be poured out at the same time that the Old Law = had=20 been received, just as Christ was the new and true Pascha in place of = the old=20 Passover [Synaxarion of the Lenten Triodion and Pentecostarion, = p.=20 239].

In addition to the descent upon the Apostles, there = is a=20 special ministry of the Holy Spirit to those within the Church. = Regarding this=20 ministry and the manifestation of God's grace in the Church's Holy = Mysteries,=20 Vladimir Lossky writes:

As [the Holy Spirit] descended upon the disciples [at = Pentecost] in tongues of fire, so [He] descends invisibly upon the newly = baptized in the Sacrament of Holy [Chrismation].... The Holy Spirit is = operative=20 in both Sacraments. He recreates our nature by purifying it and uniting = it to=20 the Body of Christ. He also bestows... divine grace upon human persons. = It is on=20 account of this intimate connection between the two Sacraments of = Baptism and=20 [Chrismation] that the uncreated and deifying gift, which the descent of = the=20 Holy Spirit confers upon the members of the Church, is frequently = referred to as=20 baptismal grace.... Baptismal grace, the presence within us of the Holy=20 Spirit... is the foundation of all Christian life [Mystical = Theology, pp.=20 170-71].

The Church lives by the Holy Spirit, Who insures the = existence=20 of God's kingdom on earth. The Holy Spirit guides Christians to God's = life,=20 truth and love. As Christ told the Apostles, "When the Spirit of Truth = comes, He=20 will guide you in all truth; for He will not speak of His own authority, = but=20 whatever He hears He will speak, and He will declare to you the things = that are=20 to come" (Jn 16:13).

Moreover, through the Holy Spirit, Christians are = made children=20 of God. As the Apostle Paul instructs: "All who are led by the Spirit = are sons=20 of God. For you did not receive the spirit of slavery... but you = received the=20 Spirit of sonship. When we cry, Abba! Father! it is the Spirit Himself = bearing=20 witness to our spirit that we are children of God" (Rom 8:14-15). The = Holy=20 Spirit also gives Christians life. As St. Paul writes: "If the Spirit of = Him Who=20 raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, He Who raised Jesus from the = dead will=20 give life to your mortal bodies through the Spirit Who dwells in you" = (Rom=20 8:11).

The Holy Spirit also appears and is recognized by His = actions=20 in other ways. From sacred history, the action of the Holy Spirit is = seen in the=20 ancient gifts of divinely inspired prophecy; in the superhuman strength = of the=20 martyrs, who were subjected to torments for their Christian faith; in = the=20 preservation of the truths of Sacred Tradition from distortion; and in = the=20 Church's preservation of divine Truth.

Furthermore, the Holy Spirit gives Christians every = gift from=20 God and divine help for those spiritually laboring to gather within = themselves=20 spiritual fruits. Among these gifts, St. Paul enumerates the following: = wisdom,=20 knowledge, faith, healing, the working of miracles, prophecy, the = discerning of=20 spirits, and the gift of tongues and their interpretation (1 Cor = 12:4-11).=20 Elsewhere, St. Paul shows that the Holy Spirit gives the possibility of = sharing=20 God's divine nature and life, and the ability to love one another. In = his=20 epistle to the Galatians, St. Paul teaches:

The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, = longsuffering,=20 gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance: against such there is = no law.=20 And they that are Christ's have crucified the flesh with the affections = and=20 lusts. If we live in the Spirit, let us also walk in the Spirit.... For = he that=20 soweth to his flesh shall of the flesh reap corruption; but he that = soweth to=20 the Spirit shall of the Spirit reap life everlasting (Gal 5:22-25, = 6:8).

Ultimately, a complete listing of the gifts of the = Holy Spirit=20 is not possible. As St. John the Baptist stated: "God giveth not the = Spirit by=20 measure unto him" (Jn 3:34); and as St. Paul stated: "But the = manifestation of=20 the Spirit is given to every man to profit withal" (1 Cor 12:7). Also, = the gifts=20 of the Holy Spirit have degrees, and in order to acquire them, = repentance is=20 necessary. "Then Peter said unto them, Repent, and be baptized every one = of you=20 in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye shall = receive the=20 gifts of the Holy Spirit" (Acts 2:38).

The Orthodox Church lays great stress upon the work = of the=20 third Person of the Holy Trinity, the All-Holy Spirit. With its every=20 sacramental action, and most notably at the climax of the Eucharistic = Prayer,=20 the Holy Spirit is solemnly invoked. Moreover, introducing the Trisagion = is the=20 following prayer, one which is also recited at almost every Orthodox = service,=20 and which is recited by Orthodox in their daily private prayers that = begin each=20 day. Through this prayer to the Holy Spirit, Orthodox place themselves = under His=20 protection:

O Heavenly King, Comforter, Spirit of Truth, Who art = every=20 where present and fillest all things, Treasury of good things and Giver = of life:=20 Come and dwell in us, and cleanse us of all impurity, and save our = souls, O Good=20 One.

Importantly, this prayer is an affirmation of an = additional=20 ministry of the Holy Spirit, one outside the purview of question 28. In = addition=20 to the special ministry of the Holy Spirit =97 that is, His = work in the=20 Church, there is a general ministry as well, one towards = all=20 creation. In this general ministry, the Holy Spirit fills all = things=20 with the energies of God in His role as the divine agent of Him by Whom = "all=20 things consist" (Col 1:17). St. Athanasius of Alexandria notes in this = regard=20 that the Son is said to be co working with the Father in creation and = with the=20 Spirit in consummation, so the Spirit co-works with the Father in = creation and=20 the Son in redemption. The Holy Spirit works in all creation, in = providence, and=20 in the entire history of salvation, activities that are general = operations=20 shared in by the three Persons of the Holy Trinity.

As one writer also notes, the Holy Spirit creates = (Gen=20 1:2, Ps 104: 30, Job 33:4); He redeems (Isa 44:3,23); and He = offers=20 gifts to creatures (Gen 2:7, 41:38, Exod 28:3, 31:3). It is also = noted that=20 the Holy Spirit illumines reason, enables political order, and restrains = the=20 capacity for humanity to destroy itself. Additional "general operations" = of the=20 Holy Spirit that are shared with the Father and Son include (but are not = limited=20 to) the offering of life, supporting newly given life, and nurturing and = strengthening continuing life =97 all life, whether plant, animal = or=20 human.

29. Give the definition of theosis.

Theosis is the process of deification or = divinization, whereby=20 Christians become "partakers of the divine nature" (2 Peter 1:4). = St.=20 Dionysius the Aeropagite states in his writings that the spiritual life = has=20 three stages: purification, illumination, and perfection. This = explanation is=20 likewise given by all the Holy Fathers of the Church. Moreover, as = Metropolitan=20 Hierotheos of Nafpaktos goes on to add, these stages are not to be = conceived as=20 water-tight compartments, but as degrees of participation in the grace = of=20 God.

The Orthodox Church teaches that to become a god is = the final=20 goal at which every Christian must aim. St. Basil the Great expressed = this idea=20 when he described man as a creature who has received the order to become = a god,=20 and St. Seraphim of Sarov likewise taught of the necessity of theosis = when he=20 explained that the goal of each Christian is the acquisition of the Holy = Spirit.=20 Also, as a prior chapter noted, St. Athanasius stated that God became = man that=20 man might become god.

In speaking of theosis, it is necessary to refer back = to the=20 distinction between the essence and energies of God (vide = chapter=20 8 answer 4). With this difference in mind, Vladimir Lossky explains that = the=20 union to which Christians are called is neither hypostatic (as in the = case of=20 the human nature of Christ), nor is it substantial (as in that of the = three=20 divine Persons). Instead, it is a union with God in His energies, = or=20 union by grace, making people able to participate in the divine = nature,=20 without their essence becoming thereby the essence of God [Cf. = The=20 Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, p. 85 ff]. Orthodoxy = understands=20 that grace is the very energies of God Himself. Through the ministry of = the Holy=20 Spirit =97 a ministry that involves both general and special activities = =97 these=20 energies are mediated to mankind.

In Orthodox America, a periodical of Orthodox=20 traditionalism, the editor Mary Mansur explains that man became ill when = the=20 nous (what the Holy Fathers call the eye of the soul) became darkened by = sin. It=20 was overcome by reason and became subject to the passions, and the = result was=20 the disruption of the whole inner functioning of the soul, she explains. = As=20 Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos adds:

Man's basic problem is to learn to see his internal = malady,=20 which is specifically the captivity and darkness of the nous.... If we = ignore=20 our inner sickness, our spiritual life ends up in an empty moralism, in = a=20 superficiality ["From the Bookshelf: The Illness and Cure of the Soul in = the=20 Orthodox Tradition," Orthodox America, vol. 18, no. 6, 2000, p. = 11].

And that is the point where Western theology is. The=20 metropolitan also states that when we understand Orthodoxy as a = therapeutic=20 method, it becomes clear that the:

... Mysteries and all the ascetic tradition of the = Church are=20 meant to lead us where Adam was before the fall =97 that is, to the = illumination=20 of the nous, and from there to divinization, which is man's original = destination=20 [Ibid].

Deification (theosis) should be the goal for all = Christians. As=20 the quotes from Scriptures and the Fathers in this work show, there is a = solid=20 biblico-patristic basis for the tradition of this teaching.

30. What, in the textbook's words, lies behind the = doctrine of=20 theosis?

The textbook states that behind the doctrine of = theosis there=20 lies the idea of man made according to the image and likeness of God in = the Holy=20 Trinity.

31. Write out the verse of St. John's Gospel = cited by=20 the textbook to demonstrate the idea of theosis.

Christ prayed at the Mystical Supper, "May they all = be one: as=20 Thou, Father, art in Me and I in Thee, so also may they be one in Us" = (Jn=20 17:21).

32. How does St. Maximus the Confessor = describe the=20 saints?

St. Maximus the Confessor describes the saints as = those who=20 express the Holy Trinity in themselves.

33. What idea is expressed constantly in St. = John's=20 Gospel and in St. Paul's epistles?

St. John's Gospel and St. Paul's epistles repeatedly = express=20 the idea of a personal and organic union between God and man, a union of = God=20 dwelling in His people and His people dwelling in Him. St. Paul saw the=20 Christian life first and foremost as a life "in Christ."

34. Write out the verse given from the Apostle = Peter's second=20 epistle which demonstrates the idea of theosis.

Through these promises you may become partakers of = the divine=20 nature (2 Peter 1:4).

35. What stipulations does the textbook place = on our=20 understanding of union with God? Your answer should have three = parts.

First, Orthodoxy's teaching on deification rejects = all forms of=20 pantheism. Union with God in no wise involves union with His divine = essence; it=20 involves instead union with His divine energies. "He who is = deified=20 through grace acquires all that God has, without also being identified = with Him=20 in essence" (St. Gregory Palamas).

Secondly, man always retains his full personal = integrity, no=20 matter how closely he becomes united to God. Although the union between = God and=20 man is a true union, Creator and creature do not become fused into a = single=20 being in it. Orthodox mystical theology rejects the notion of Eastern = religions=20 that man is entirely absorbed into the deity. Man in his deified state = is=20 distinct from God (although not separate from Him). Just as the mystery = of the=20 Holy Trinity is a mystery of unity in diversity, so it is among = those who=20 express the Trinity in themselves: they still keep their personal=20 characteristics. When St. Maximus the Confessor wrote that "God and = those who=20 are worthy of God have one and the same energy" [from Ambigua], = he was=20 not saying that the saints lose their free will, but that when deified, = they=20 voluntarily and lovingly bring their own will into compliance with God's = will.

Lastly, man's becoming a god does not put an end to = his being=20 human. "We remain creatures while becoming god by grace, as Christ = remained God=20 when becoming Man by the Incarnation," so Vladimir Lossky explains. Man = can=20 never become God by nature, but becomes merely a created god, a = god by=20 grace or status.

To become a partaker of the divine nature through = theosis,=20 something from God, is not to be confused with its satanic counterfeit = offered=20 in the New Age movement. At a time with the powers of darkness are = pushing=20 forward toward the new world order and global rule, the same element has = devised=20 the New Age movement and has presented its religious ideas as something=20 conceived by the most illumined minds, the only exit out of the current = global=20 crises, the last hope for salvation, and the greatest good for achieving = mutual=20 tolerance and love. Since the lie of the serpent ye shall be as = gods is=20 repeated in this movement, and since only Christ gives people that which = the=20 serpent could only tempt mankind with, the following explanation is = given of=20 this movement:

The New Age movement is a conglomerate of pagan = practices with=20 a mixing of ancient mysteries, Hindu mysticism, humanism, occultism and=20 Luciferism. The main concept of the New Age movement, the idea which = permeates=20 and connects all of the various aspects of this new religion, their = common=20 denominator, is the concept of a higher force, a god of forces, in which = every=20 enlightened person has a part. It is, further, an understanding of the = "godness"=20 of man's essence and one's ability to tap into this godhood-of-self by = means of=20 prescribed and verified techniques. Using the words of one prominent New = Age=20 proselytizer, actress Shirley MacLaine: "Man has existed from the = beginning of=20 time and space.... Man was the co-creator with God of the cosmos.... The = tragedy=20 of the human race was that we had forgotten that we were each divine.... = You=20 must never worship anyone or anything other than self. For you are God. = To love=20 self is to love God.... I know that I exist, therefore I am. I know that = the God=20 source exists, therefore it is. Since I am part of that force, then I am = that I=20 am."

Are MacLaine's words not a repeat of the serpent's = lie with=20 which he tempted the first people by saying, "Ye shall be as gods" (Gen = 3:5)? Is=20 this not the very same lie which brought about man's fall when he = accepted it,=20 which brought about his eviction from Paradise and brought about his = death? Is=20 not man's acceptance of this lie the reason why Christ needed to come to = earth=20 and take upon Himself suffering for our redemption? Going back even = further in=20 time, is this not a repeat of the rebellion against God by Lucifer, who = was so=20 overcome with pride that he attempted to place his throne in place of = God's=20 throne?

According to a recent poll, two thirds of Americans = believe in=20 some aspect of New Age teachings. These ideas have permeated all spheres = of=20 society and education. However, this is not sufficient for those coming = into=20 power. They need to change the consciousness of mankind in its = foundation.=20 Therefore, they have started with the most available, the most naive and = susceptible group. The last and most frightening phase of this onslaught = has=20 begun; it is a phase in which the remnants of Christian thinking will = receive=20 their final blow. The arena has been transferred to the souls of = children ["The=20 New Age and Children," Orthodox Life, vol. 42, no. 6, 1992, p. = 20].

The anonymous writer of these lines goes on to = explain that=20 today, TV is a tool of socio-religious indoctrination through which = concepts of=20 good and evil are presented in totally inverted manner against a = backdrop of=20 magic, the supernatural and the demonic. He also shows how New Age=20 indoctrination goes on in public schools, In view of this onslaught of=20 propaganda, it is all the more urgent to understand what true union with = God is,=20 and what its New Age counterfeit is about.

36. Does theosis (deification or divinization) = refer=20 only to man's soul, or does it also have relation to the body?

Theosis involves the body as well as the soul.

37. Write out the short quotation from St. = Maximus the=20 Confessor given on page 237 of the textbook, and give the explanation = which=20 precedes it.

St. Maximus the Confessor wrote: "Man's body is = deified at the=20 same time as his soul." The textbook explains that because man is a = union of=20 soul and body, and because the Incarnate Christ has saved the whole man, = then it=20 follows that man is to be deified in both body and soul.

38. Write out the two scriptural quotes given = on page=20 238, and explain what point the textbook is seeking to make with these = two=20 quotations.

Your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor = 6:19).=20 Therefore, my brothers, I beseech you by God's mercy to offer your = bodies as a=20 living sacrifice to God (Rom 12:1).

It is sometimes thought that the body is unimportant. = This idea=20 is a carryover from pre-Christian Greek ideas, and the first quote is to = show=20 that this idea is false. Orthodox asceticism does not regard the body as = evil,=20 nor does it seek to free the soul from it. According to the Orthodox = teaching,=20 it is not the body that is evil, but a carnal mind is evil. The body is=20 transformed by the grace of God. The body is sanctified in Baptism, it = is=20 sanctified by the reception of the Holy Eucharist, and, as the first = quote=20 shows, it is a temple and dwelling-place of the Holy Spirit. They body = (as well=20 as the soul) belongs to God.

Because of the sanctification of the body, Orthodox = Christians=20 have an immense reverence for the relics of saints. They understand that = the=20 grace of God that was present in the saints' bodies during life remains = active=20 in their relics after their repose, and that God uses these relics as a = channel=20 of divine power and as a means of healing. Protopresbyter Michael = Pomazansky=20 explains in this regard that the honor shown to relics has a firm = foundation in=20 the fact that God Himself has deigned to honor and glorify them by = innumerable=20 signs and miracles =97 something for which there is testimony throughout = the whole=20 course of the Church's history.

As another writer explains, when Orthodox Christians = venerate=20 relics, they venerate not the matter itself, but the living and = life-creating=20 power of the Holy Spirit, which makes them not only incorrupt, but also = healing.=20 From Sacred Scripture, it is known that from the touch of the bones of = the=20 Prophet Elisseus a dead man resurrected (4 Kings [2 Kings, KJV] 13:21); = a woman=20 with an issue of blood received healing from touching the hem of the = Saviour=92s=20 garment (Mt 9:20-22); and the sick and possessed were healed by laying = on them=20 the Apostle Paul's handkerchiefs and aprons (Acts 19:12). The same = divine power=20 that was inherent in the bones of the Prophet Elisseus, the garments of = the=20 Saviour, and the handkerchiefs of the Apostle Paul, also grants = incorruption and=20 miracle-working power to the bodies of the saints to strengthen the = faith of=20 Christians. Therefore, as to the attacks that relegate Orthodoxy's = reverence of=20 relics to the realm of superstition and gross ignorance, these attacks = are=20 unwarranted.

Fr. Michael Pomazansky explains that the bodies of = Christians=20 who have lived a righteous life or have become holy through receiving a = martyr's=20 death, are worthy of special veneration and honor. Following Sacred = Tradition,=20 the Orthodox Church has always shown honor to holy relics (in Greek, = ta=20 leipsana, in Latin, reliquiae, both meaning that what is = left;=20 in Old Slavonic, moshchi). Fr. Michael states that the honor = given to=20 relics has been expressed a) in the reverent collection and preservation = of the=20 remains of the saints of God, as is known from accounts even of the = second=20 century, and then from the testimonies of later times; b) in the solemn=20 uncovering and translation of holy relics; c) in the building over them = of=20 churches and altars; d) in the establishment of feasts in memory of = their=20 uncovering or translation; e) in pilgrimages to holy tombs, and in = adorning=20 them; f) in the constant rule of the Church to place relics of holy = martyrs at=20 the dedication of altars, or to place holy relics in the holy = antimension upon=20 which is performed the Divine Liturgy.

Fr. Michael concludes his explanation by stating that = in=20 revering holy relics, Christians do not believe in the power or might of = the=20 remains of the saints themselves. Instead, they believe in the prayerful = intercession of those saints whose holy relics are before them. These = relics=20 arouse in their hearts a feeling of the nearness to them of the saints = of God=20 themselves, who once wore these bodies.

Archimandrite Panteleimon of Jordanville also writes = about=20 relics. He notes that by the will of God, the bodies of some saints = remain=20 incorruptible for many years. This incorruption is a visible witness of = the=20 holiness of the saints, a visible sign of God's blessing residing in = their very=20 bodies. Fr. Panteleimon notes that in them, the words of David have come = true =97=20 not only in relation to the Saviour, but in relation to His faithful = servants as=20 well: "For Thou [Lord] wilt not suffer Thine Holy One to see corruption" = (Ps=20 15:10).

Fr. Panteleimon cites various Fathers who expound on = the=20 incorruption and miraculous power of relics. St. Ephraim the Syrian, for = example, states that:

Even after death, saints act as they did when living, = healing=20 the sick, expelling demons, and by the power of the Lord repelling every = evil=20 action of their tortuous realm. For the miracle-working blessing of the = Holy=20 Spirit is always inherent in holy relics [Quoted in Archimandrite = Panteleimon,=20 A Ray of Light: Instructions in Piety and the State of the World at = the End=20 of Time, p. 20].

Likewise, with these words St. John Chrysostom = invited all to=20 approach the relics of St. Ignatius the God-Bearer, the second bishop of = Antioch=20 and martyr:

If you are sorrowful, ill, wronged, in some other = trouble, or=20 in the depths of sin, run to him with faith: you will receive aid and = depart=20 with great happiness, sensing an easing of your conscience.... This = treasure is=20 needful for all: for the unfortunate, since it frees them from = calamities, and=20 for the fortunate, for it confirms their fortune, and for the ailing, = for it=20 returns well-being to them, and for the healthy, for it turns away = disease=20 [Ibid].

The second scriptural quote above deals with the = necessity of=20 the deification of the body. Since man is a unity of body and soul, and = since he=20 cannot sin with the body and keep the soul undefiled, St. Paul exhorts=20 Christians to be holy in body. Through this quote, the textbook is = showing that=20 deification most assuredly involves the body as well as it does the = soul.

39. Outline ten important points in = understanding the=20 doctrine of theosis.

(1) The first fruits of visible bodily glorification = have on=20 occasion come to the saints even in this life. The textbook mentions = some saints=20 who have shone with the divine light in their earthly lives =97 St. = Seraphim of=20 Sarov, St. Arsenius the Great and Abba Pambo. St. Gregory Palamas states = that=20 "if in the age to come the body will share with the soul in unspeakable=20 blessings, it is certain that it must share in them, so far as possible, = even=20 now" [The Tome of the Holy Mountain].

(2) The glory of the saints in the earthly life, = however, is=20 most often one of an inward splendor, one of the soul alone. The full=20 deification of the body will not be actualized until the Last Day, when = the=20 saints rise from the dead and become clothed in a spiritual body. Then = the=20 sanctity formerly hidden in their souls will be manifested bodily, and = the=20 saints' bodies will be outwardly transfigured by the divine light that = the=20 Apostles witnessed at Christ's Transfiguration.

(3) Since theosis involves the sanctification and=20 transfiguration of the body along with the soul, Orthodoxy reveres the = relics of=20 saints. This reverence does not spring from superstition or ignorance, = but comes=20 from a highly developed theology of the body. The relics of the saints = contain=20 the same divine grace that was present when the saints were alive, and = these are=20 used by God as a channel of divine power and as a means of healing, as = was noted=20 above. The same reverence is shown to the bones of the saints as is to = the=20 bodies of those who have remained free from corruption.

(4) Theosis involves a cosmic redemption. In addition = to man's=20 body, all of the material creation is eventually going to be = transfigured. As=20 St. John the Theologian writes: "Then I saw a new heaven and a new = earth;=20 for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away"(Rev 21:1). = Redeemed=20 man will not be taken away from creation, for it is to be saved and = glorified=20 with him. (Here the textbook draws attention to a point made in a former = lesson:=20 icons are the first fruits of the redemption of matter). Scriptures = mention=20 that: "... the created universe waits with eager expectation for God's = sons to=20 be revealed... for the universe itself will be set free from its bondage = to=20 corruption and will enter into the liberty and splendor of the children = of God.=20 We know that until now the whole created universe has been groaning in = the pangs=20 of childbirth" (Rom 8:19-22).

The belief in the redemption of the universe, just = like the=20 Orthodox doctrine of icons and the doctrine of the human body, stems = from a=20 correct understanding of the Incarnation: Christ took flesh (something = material)=20 and thus made possible the redemption and metamorphosis of all creation = =97 not=20 only the spiritual world, but the material world as well. Noteworthy in = this=20 regard is Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky's explanation that:

The end of the world will consist not in its total = destruction=20 and annihilation, but in a complete change and renewal of it. The Fifth=20 Ecumenical Council, in refuting the various false teachings of the = Origenists,=20 solemnly condemned also their false teaching that the material world = would not=20 merely be transformed, but would be totally annihilated [Orthodox = Dogmatic=20 Theology, p. 345].

(5) Theosis is not a remote process reserved for a = select few,=20 but is rather the normal goal for each individual Christian without = exception.=20 This process must begin for all of them in this present life, even = though they=20 will only be fully deified on the Last Day. Granted, very few in this = life=20 attain a full mystical union with God, but every true Christian who = tries to=20 love God and keep His commandments (however weak his attempts and = however often=20 he fails) =97 such a person is already deified to some degree.

(6) A person being deified does not lose = consciousness of sin,=20 for theosis involves a continued act of repentance. However advanced a = saint is=20 on the path of holiness, he still repeats, "Lord, Jesus Christ, Son of = God,=20 have mercy upon me, a sinner." (Concerning this prayer, the Jesus = Prayer,=20 which is mentioned in one of the novels of J.D. Salinger, it has the = mysterious=20 property and power of expelling demons from a person. This property was=20 discussed by the Lord Himself, Who said that those who believe in Him in = His=20 name will cast out demons =97 cf. Mk 16:17). The saints grew all the = more=20 conscious and sorrowful of their sins as they progressed in union with = God. The=20 textbook explains that "Orthodox mystical theology is a theology of = glory and=20 transfiguration, but it is also a theology of penitence."

(7) The method to follow in order to be deified does = not=20 involve anything extraordinary or esoteric. It involves attendance at = church,=20 the reception of the Holy Mysteries (Sacraments) on a regular basis, = praying to=20 God "in spirit and truth," the reading of the Gospels, and the following = of the=20 commandments.

(8) Deification is a social process rather than a = solitary,=20 selfish one. As noted, deification involves keeping the commandments, = and these=20 are summed up by Christ as the love of God and the love of neighbor. The = two=20 cannot be separated, for a man is able to love his neighbor only if he = loves God=20 above all else, and ... he who does not love his brother whom he has = seen,=20 cannot love God Whom he has not seen. And this commandment we have from = Him,=20 that he who loves God should love his brother also (1 Jn 4:20-21).

Likewise did St. Anthony of Egypt instruct: "From our = neighbor=20 is life and from our neighbor is death. If we win our neighbor we win = God, but=20 if we cause our neighbor to stumble we sin against Christ."

The textbook explains that man, who is made in the = image and=20 likeness of God, can only realize the divine likeness if he lives a = common life=20 such as that of the Holy Trinity. Man must dwell with his fellow men = just as the=20 three Persons of the Godhead dwell in one another. That is, man must not = live=20 for himself alone, but he must live in and for other people. This kind = of=20 co-suffering love is shown in the words of a Desert Father who said: "If = it were=20 possible for me to find a leper and to give him my body and to take his, = I would=20 gladly do it" [Apophthegmata].

(9) Deification, even though it involves heights of = mystical=20 experience, is also practical, down-to-earth, and even prosaic. Not only = does it=20 involve hesychasts praying in silence and saints radiant with the divine = light,=20 but it also involves the commonplace tasks with which St. Herman of = Alaska=20 busied himself. Accounts of his life mention his carrying heavy timbers = to build=20 the mission at Spruce Island; his digging a trench to contain a wildfire = that=20 threatened the native Indians' habitat; his painstaking nursing of those = who=20 were stricken with a smallpox epidemic; his teaching the locals the arts = of=20 agriculture, carpentry an other useful crafts; and his hard labors in = feeding=20 and clothing orphans and buying books for his students. The mystical and = practical experiences are not two separate ways, but are one and the = same way.=20 Orthodoxy rejects all forms of quietism and all forms of love that do = not issue=20 in action.

(10) Deification involves life in the Church and the = reception=20 of the Holy Mysteries, for through them Christians partake of the = uncreated=20 grace of God. The Mysteries are the means established by God whereby = people=20 acquire the Holy Spirit and are transformed into the divine likeness. As = the=20 New-Martyr Tikhon, Patriarch of All Russia, wrote, it is through the = Holy=20 Mysteries that a Christian is cleansed of sin and becomes a beloved = child of the=20 Lord.

40. Does theosis take place for the soul in this life = as part=20 of one's salvation so that the soul of the believer is already deified = before it=20 leaves the body? Or does theosis take place only after the Last=20 Judgment?

Theosis must take place for the soul in this life. As = mentioned=20 above, few attain a full mystical union with God in this life, and = people will=20 only be fully deified on the Last Day. Nevertheless, deification must = begin here=20 and now as part of a person's salvation.

41. What is the only real difference in the = realization of=20 theosis between the body and soul?

In the present life, the saints have an inward = splendor, one of=20 the soul alone. The same glory that is hidden in their souls during = their=20 earthly lives will manifest itself in the next life in an outward way. = On the=20 Day of Resurrection, the glory of the Holy Spirit will come out from = within and=20 will cover the bodies of the saints so that their bodies will be = outwardly=20 transfigured by the divine light. Thus, although deification involves = both soul=20 and body, bodily deification will not become apparent until the next = life.

42. What questions were raised in your mind by = this=20 chapter and then left unanswered?

The Apostle Paul wrote that "the whole creation = groaneth and=20 travaileth in pain together until now" (Rom 8:22). That is, because of = the fall=20 of the progenitors of the human race, the universe was turned into a = cosmic=20 cemetery. Nature does not have a moral will, and thus it did not fall by = itself=20 but was swept along to decay by Adam and Eve. Their sin had immense = consequences=20 for nature. Since the world is groaning in torment until it is saved by = God, and=20 since all members of the human race and all creation share this tragic = fate,=20 questions arose concerning Adam and Eve's transgression and how it = affected not=20 only man's existence on earth, but also the existence of the plant and = animal=20 kingdoms as well.

More specifically, questions concerned the presence = on earth of=20 bacteria, viruses and pathogens in general; of sporozoan parasites, = blood=20 protozoans and every kind of internal and external parasite causing = sickness and=20 misery to humans and animals. Was the evil unleashed in the fall such = that the=20 RNA and DNA of living organisms changed to the extent that harmful = traits=20 started to emerge in certain ones as they multiplied? Was mankind's = first sin=20 the cause of damaging mutations that brought about insect pests and = vectors=20 (mosquitoes, flies, lice, cockroaches, boll weevils, termites, locusts, = wasps,=20 yellow jackets, hornets, fire ants, etc.), and the cause of harmful = arachnids=20 such as poisonous spiders, ticks, mites, chiggers and scorpions?

Investigation into this matter led to the ineluctable = conclusion that science has no data whatsoever concerning the primitive = life of=20 man. Even a Time magazine article "How Man Began" (March 14, 1994) = contains an=20 open admission that paleontology is a "data-poor, imagination-rich" = field in=20 which there are few certainties. The entire article, in fact, is = saturated with=20 uncertainties such as perhaps, presumably, appears to be, = seemingly,=20 if, and such-like. The famous French anthropologist Katrefage gets = to the=20 truth of the matter in his observation that:

Neither experience nor observation gives us the = slightest facts=20 concerning the very beginning of mankind. Strict science must therefore = leave=20 inviolate this problem. He who acknowledges his ignorance in the given = case=20 recedes less from the truth than he who does not acknowledge it and = strives to=20 press it on to others [Quoted in Ivan Andreyev, Orthodox Apologetic=20 Theology, p. 131].

Dr. Andreyev states that the one oblique proof of the = correctness of biblical teaching in this question are the most ancient=20 traditions of diverse peoples about the primitive state of the race of = man.=20 Comparative study of these traditions, the same professor writes, forces = us to=20 conjecture their common source =97 the actuality in the past of a = "golden age" or=20 Paradise. Dr. Andreyev explains that:

Dim traditions about Paradise and its loss through = the fall are=20 met among peoples of Assyria-Babylon, the Persians, the Chinese, the = Indians,=20 the Egyptians, the ancient Greeks, the Romans, etc. In other words, = biblical=20 teaching about the primitive state of man is not alone. Various versions = of this=20 teaching are met in traditions of people of Asia, Europe, Africa, = Australia and=20 America (in Mexico, Paraguay, and others). What can explain this = remarkable=20 mutual accord in traditions of various peoples about the primitive state = and=20 fall of man? The only explanation can be the historical actuality of = Paradise=20 and its loss through the fall. [Ibid].

Further investigation into this matter brought to = light the=20 findings of a biophysicist, one Dr. Lee Spetner. This scientist's = research shows=20 that all useful genetic information was initially present in each = organism. He=20 demonstrates that chance mutations cannot produce grand-scale evolution = since=20 these mutations result not in increased genetic information, but rather = in a=20 loss of information. His findings thus support the traditional view that = the=20 universe is devolving.

Dr. Spetner goes on to posit that the variations that = do occur=20 within each kind of organism are the result of "triggers" or "cues" = which a=20 "biological Engineer" (that is, God) built into organisms to enable them = to=20 adapt to their environment [Cf. Not by Chance! Shattering the Modern = Theory=20 of Evolution, 1977]. This postulate and all of this scientist's = research=20 accord well with the idea that living organisms underwent injurious = changes as a=20 consequence of man's fall.

Another question concerned the explanation of the = cause and=20 spread of evil and suffering that is found in pre-Christian Greek = mythology.=20 According to this account, evil appeared and extended across the face of = the=20 earth when a certain Pandora opened a box contrary to a command that she = was not=20 to do so. Is this story based on the Genesis account of the curse that = followed=20 Adam and Eve's fall?

In all likelihood it is, given the fact that many = different=20 peoples and nations have preserved, in one degree or another, a mutually = agreeable account of another biblical narrative as well =97 that of the = flood. As=20 the findings of the English scientist Arthur Hook show, these nations = include=20 those of the Fertile Crescent and adjacent areas =97 the Greeks = themselves, among=20 them, as well as the Phrygians, Chaldeans, Phoenicians, Babylonians, = Assyrians,=20 Armenians and Persians, and also more geographically isolated peoples = =97 the=20 Indians and Chinese, and even the Mexicans. Also testifying to a = widespread=20 tradition that the flood was an even that gripped all mankind are the=20 compilations made by secular historians (R. Andree, H. Usener and T.G. = Frazer).=20 In these, it is shown that accounts of a great deluge are to be found in = cultures all over the world, on all continents. In the majority of flood = stories, the deluge results from the sins of a fallen humanity, the old = world is=20 submerged under the waters, only a few people and animals are saved, and = a new=20 world comes into being [Cf. Mircea Eliade, A History of Religious = Ideas,=20 vol. 1, pp. 63-64]. Among the most interesting flood stories are those = of the=20 Australian aboriginal people, which are filled with striking parallels = to the=20 Genesis account.

Related research showed that idolatry developed after = the fall=20 and was the product of man's fallen nature. The Holy Fathers state that = the=20 development of natural religions occurred because the knowledge of God = was still=20 in people's memories. Adam was granted a long life of 930 years so that=20 tradition could be established =97 that is, so he could tell many = generations of=20 people all that he had experienced. Even though most of his and Eve's = progeny=20 lived far away from God as they began to scatter across the face of the = earth,=20 they maintained a knowledge of God, however limited, by word of mouth = and=20 memory. However, because of the sins that separate men from God, their = reason=20 was clouded, and in time they began to forget the invisible true God, = the=20 Creator of the world. With fewer and fewer righteous men, there was no = one to=20 teach people true faith in God. Concurrent with this development, as = people=20 still retained a need inside to reach something divine, myths began = about the=20 creation of the world, about a universal flood, etc., as well as false = faith,=20 superstition.

The book of Genesis mentions two groups of closely = related=20 peoples who had come to inhabit the earth =97 the sons of God and = the=20 daughters of men (Gen 6:2-4). The Fathers understand the sons of = God to=20 be the offspring of Seth, the chosen race. These "Sethites" were a = people who=20 maintained a knowledge of God, albeit an imperfect knowledge. Their path = was one=20 of striving towards personal reconciliation with God and repentance = before Him=20 in the hope of someday receiving forgiveness and the return of the = condition=20 which had been lost. It is from these sons of God that faith in one God = was=20 passed on to Abraham and his descendants. By the time of Moses, the = other=20 peoples had lost this truth for some time. Even among the Hebrews, = surrounded as=20 they were by polytheistic nations, the truth of one God was becoming = darkened,=20 and it was threatened to die out during the Egyptian captivity.

These sons of God are also the giants = mentioned=20 in Genesis 6:5, according to St. Ephraim the Syrian. By giants, = one does=20 not need to understand enormous men. According to St. Ephraim, because = these=20 people were the descendants of blessed Seth and were dwelling in the = land along=20 the boundaries of the fence of Paradise, their produce was abundant and = full of=20 strength. So too were the bodies of those who ate that produce strong, = tall,=20 full of stature and powerful. It is thought that these same giants with = their=20 mighty deeds of strength (manifested perhaps in wars with the offspring = of Cain)=20 would have been the origin of the "gods" of later legend in Greece and = other=20 lands.

The Sethites were called the sons of God because = through them,=20 Christ was to be born. They were therefore to keep themselves pure and = to=20 preserve in themselves virtue, and they were not supposed to marry into = the line=20 of Cain. However, moved by carnal lust, they began to abandon their own = wives=20 for the daughters of Cain. Although the Sethites were the chosen people, = they=20 eventually became corrupt through this practice of intermarriage and = were=20 destroyed, save Noah and his sons.

Regarding this second group of people, the = daughters of=20 men, these were the offspring of Cain. These "Canaanites" (not to be = confused with the Canaanites) were not the chosen people but were = forbidden=20 people, the outcasts. As Fr. Gregory Naumenko points out, the path of = the=20 Sethites and the path of the Canaanites are two differing reactions of = man's=20 reason to the fall into sin and the resultant banishment from Paradise. = After=20 the banishment, the first people came to know hard labor in their = struggle with=20 nature, and they began to know suffering from disease and injury, and = finally=20 they encountered death. Already, the first steps of man outside Paradise = were=20 covered with the blood of fratricide, after which came new crimes, = corruption,=20 wars, polygamy, etc. Because of these sufferings, the desire to regain = the=20 blessed existence of Paradise became the all-encompassing goal of the = entire=20 human race, although the means of attempting the practical attainment of = this=20 goal were different. Unlike the Sethites, the Canaanites took the = circuitous=20 (indirect) route and attempted to recreate the actual paradisiacal = blessed=20 condition by earthly means. That is, they attempted to set up their life = on=20 earth without God, following the example of their ancestor Cain, who = after=20 murdering his brother Abel "went out from the Lord.. [and] built a city" = (Gen=20 4:16-17), thus laying the foundation of material civilization. Along = with the=20 appearance of cities, external culture began to develop. Trades = appeared, and=20 machinery began its development, along with the sciences and art. All = these=20 things, however, were only a coarse substitute for the free creativeness = that=20 Adam and Even had in Paradise.

Concerning the offspring of Cain, St. Ephraim states = that they=20 were small. The house of Cain, he explains, because the earth had been = cursed so=20 as not to give them its strength, produced small harvests, deprived of = its=20 strength, just as it is today that some seeds, fruits and grasses give = strength=20 and some do not. Because these people were cursed and were dwelling in = the land=20 of curses, they would gather and eat produce that lacked nutrition, and = those=20 who ate were without strength, just like the food that they ate. This = same=20 Father states that a preponderance of daughters was born to the = offspring of=20 Cain, indicating a dying out of Cain's descendants and their desire to = marry the=20 sons of Seth so as to protect their race.

With the offspring of Cain and with those of the = other=20 offspring of Adam, there came to be two parallel lines of = humanity. These=20 lines were images, as it were, of the true followers of God and = the=20 apostates from Him, or as Blessed Augustine of Hippo later = described it,=20 the City of God and the City of Man. It was this second group of people, = the=20 descendants of Adam and Eve through Cain, who mixed the true faith with = demonic=20 ideas, thus giving birth to pagan religion.

Thus, on the basis of this history, it appears all = the more=20 certain that the mythical story of Pandora is a modified account of the = Old=20 Testament narrative of the fall, one in which the truth of the biblical = account=20 is interwoven with fiction by pagan peoples. All the more so would this=20 explanation be valid, given the distinct probability that the giants = mentioned=20 in Genesis entered into pagan religion and myth (including pagan Greek = myth) as=20 "gods."

Another question was how man's primordial fall = affected man's=20 relations with animals, and also how it affected the relation of animals = among=20 themselves. Holy Scripture shows that the consequences of moral evil = spread from=20 the fallen angels to people, and to the animal world and the whole of = creation.=20 Research also showed that animals did not prey upon one another in the=20 beginning, but that the predatory condition is related to man's fall. = Thus in=20 the two highly acclaimed paintings Peaceable Kingdom, three = anachronisms=20 are present: there are more than two people with the animals, the fierce = animals=20 show no interest in predation, and the timid animals show no fear of the = fierce=20 ones or the people.

Actually, Peaceable Kingdom could have existed = only when=20 there were no more than two people on the earth =97 that is, = before the=20 fall, before the disruption of harmony between humans and animals, and = between=20 the animals themselves, took place. In Paradise, when Adam was the king = of all=20 creation, all living creatures saw the light of God's image in Adam's = face, felt=20 his holiness and sensed the fragrance of sanctity. All of them = acknowledged Adam=20 as a king, and all willingly and naturally submitted to him.

After the fall, however, after Adam disobeyed God's = command,=20 this acknowledgement was abolished, and the unreasoning animals refused = to=20 submit to man, the criminal. Speaking of this new state of existence, a = hermit=20 of Mount Athos states:

Nicholas Cabasilas analyzes this new condition = vividly. Man, he=20 says, is created in the image of God. In Adam, the image of God was the = clear=20 mirror through which the light of God reflects on nature. As long as the = mirror=20 remains unbroken, all nature was lit up. However, as soon as it was = broken and=20 smashed, deep darkness fell on all creation. All nature, then, rebelled = against=20 man and now does not acknowledge him, neither does it want to give him = its=20 fruits. Thus, man is sustained with anguish and labor. The animals are = also=20 afraid of him and are quite aggressive. Yet, when man receives the grace = of=20 Christ, all the powers of the soul integrate. He is in the image and = likeness of=20 God. He becomes a mirror, a light which shines forth the divine grace = even to=20 irrational creatures. Now the animals acknowledge him, obey him and = respect him.=20 There are many cases recorded where the ascetic-hermit lives in the = company of=20 bears and wild animals. He feeds them, and they in turn serve him, [and] = acquiring divine grace through the Jesus Prayer, he becomes again the = king of=20 nature, and even more, he ascends to a more elevated state than Adam's.=20 According to the Fathers, Adam was in the image of God, but he had to = reach to=20 the likeness of God through obedience. He was in the stage of = illumination of=20 the nous and he had to attain to theosis. Whereas the ascetic attains to = "the=20 likeness of God" (divinization) as far as possible, through divine = grace, [he=20 does so without entering] into the divine essence. He partakes of the = uncreated=20 energies of God. I shall give you an example of this acknowledgement on = the part=20 of nature.... When my ever memorable gerondas [elder] was saying the = Jesus=20 Prayer, wild birds would come to the windows of his cell pecking on the = panes.=20 One would think this was the activity of the devil to hinder him from = prayer.=20 But, in fact, the wild birds were attracted by the prayer of the = gerondas!=20 [Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos, A Night in the Desert of the = Holy=20 Mountain, p. 124].

Any such idyllic realm as Peaceable Kingdom = has been=20 reestablished since Adam and Eve's time only aboard Noah's ark, and then = in=20 post-Noahic flood times, in the Christian Church among various ascetic = recluses=20 and desert anchorites who regained the likeness of Adam in Paradise. The = righteous Noah is like a second Adam. In Noah's presence, the wild = beasts became=20 meek and obedient as they were before the fall, and for this reason they = do not=20 attack one another inside the ark. Just as animals were at peace with = one=20 another before the fall, so they are also at peace around Noah, the = image of=20 Adam and the second progenitor of the human race. In his presence, = animals which=20 are natural enemies once again coexist in harmony.

In Christian times, saintly men and women, having = purified=20 themselves through unceasing prayer to God, Whom they loved so deeply, = restored=20 the image of God in themselves. By becoming dispassionate through prayer = and=20 ascetic struggle, Orthodox saints throughout the ages regained in = themselves=20 while yet in a corruptible body, some measure of pre-fall Adam. Like = Adam, they=20 were impervious to the elements, and also like him, they were masters = and=20 stewards of creation. Animals sensed the purity and holiness in these = hermits,=20 and all of them willingly submitted to these saints in obedience. Such = is the=20 concept of prepodobny in Orthodoxy: a saint who has become like = unto the=20 first-created Adam. This phenomenon is seen in the lives of the saints = right up=20 to very recent times.

The last question concerned the consumption of flesh. = Investigation in this area showed that man's eating meat is a condition = related=20 to the fall. A recent Synaxis Press article, "Commentary on Scientific=20 Creationism," mentions that both science and the Fathers confirm that = early=20 man's sustenance was a diet of carbohydrates, plant proteins and high = fibers=20 (that is, fruits, herbs and grains), rather than one of fleshy proteins. = Another=20 source shows that the most natural food is that which was assigned to = man by the=20 Creator immediately after the creation: food from the vegetable kingdom. = God=20 said to the parents of the human race: "Behold, I have given you every=20 seed-bearing plant, the sowing seed which is on the whole earth; and = ever tree=20 which has within it the fruit of seminal seed shall be to you for food" = (Gen=20 1:29). It was only after the flood that the use of meat was = allowed, Noah=20 being the first to receive this permission (Gen 9:3). Eating meat was = allowed at=20 this time because, as the Fathers suggest, man had by this time become = lower,=20 more fallen. God sees that men will continue to be evil, and that is why = He=20 allows meat to be eaten, in accordance with the lower conditions of = post-flood=20 humanity.

 

10. The Church of = God.

 

1. What is the position of Christ in the = Orthodox=20 Church?

"Christ is the Head of the Church" (Eph 4:15, = 5:23; Col=20 1:18). In giving authority to His Apostles before His Ascension, the = Saviour=20 told them that He Himself would not cease to be the invisible Shepherd = and Pilot=20 of the Church. "I am with you always, even to the end of the world" (Mt = 28:20).=20 Christ also stated that He, as the Good Shepherd, had to bring in also = those=20 sheep who were not of His fold so that there would be one flock and one = Shepherd=20 (Jn 10:16). The Apostle Paul likewise instructed that God the Father = "gave Him=20 to be the Head over all things to the Church, which is His Body, the = fullness of=20 Him that filleth all in all" (Eph 1:22-23).

2. Write out the scriptural quote and the = quotation of=20 St. John of Kronstadt given at the beginning of this chapter of the=20 textbook.

Christ so loved the Church and gave Himself up for it = (Eph=20 5:25).

The Church is one and the same with the Lord =97 His = Body, of His=20 flesh and of His bones. The Church is the living vine, nourished by Him = and=20 growing in Him. Never think of the Church apart from the Lord Jesus = Christ, from=20 the Father and the Holy Spirit [St. John of Kronstadt].

3. How do you interpret the words of Khomiakov = given in=20 this chapter of the textbook?

Khomiakov wrote: "We know that when anyone of us = falls, he=20 falls alone; but no one is saved alone. He is saved in the Church, as a = member=20 of it and in union with all its other members."

Khomiakov is speaking of the matter of damnation and = salvation.=20 Damnation is an individual matter: those damned to eternal death cannot = bring=20 damnation upon their fellow men, for each will be judged according to = his own=20 works. As Christ stated: "For the Son of Man shall come in the glory of = His=20 Father with His angels; and then He shall reward every man according to = his=20 works" (Mt 16: 27).

Salvation, however, is a communal matter, one that = takes place=20 in the Church. As the textbook states, since the Kingdom of God is given = to men=20 by Christ in the Church, and since it is celebrated and = participated in=20 the Mysteries in the Church, Khomiakov can rightly state that we = are=20 saved in the Church rather than alone.

Adding to these ideas, Archimandrite Panteleimon of = Jordanville=20 states that in order that people might attain salvation for themselves, = Christ=20 founded the Church, His grace-filled kingdom on earth, and He imparts = grace=20 (power that sanctifies) to all members of the Church. Christ also = established=20 the Mysteries (Sacraments) for the Church as the means by which = Christians=20 receive this grace filled power. Fr. Panteleimon additionally states = that the=20 Word of God teaches that God Himself founded the Church, gathered His = children=20 together, and returned to the enclosure of salvation those who were torn = from it=20 by enemy forces [Cf. A Ray of Light: Instructions in Piety and the = State of=20 the World at the End of Time, p. 23 ff].

In the matter of falling alone, Khomiakov is not = implying that=20 a person's sin does not effect others. No sin is personal as it has = social and=20 universal dimensions. An individual's sins erodes the likeness of God in = him so=20 that he becomes less a reflection of his Creator and less of a spiritual = influence on others. For this reason, a person's sin does affect=20 others.

There is a saying among the Fathers that "no man sins = alone."=20 In his Orthodox Moral Theology (in Russian), Professor Ivan = Andreyev=20 relates a New York City newspaper's account of a 29-year old = child-killer. When=20 the police arrived on the scene, the tortured child was already dead, = yet the=20 mother was continuing to beat him and showed no signs of remorse. The = police,=20 accustomed to all sorts of crimes, "were not able to bear the sight of = the=20 little body," which appeared to be nothing more than "one massive = wound," as the=20 article reported. Concerning this horrific tragedy, Dr. Andreyev = writes:

Since we are all sinners, we create evil and our evil = becomes a=20 part of the world's treasury of evil. This evil coalesces into a huge = energy of=20 evil which seeks vessels of graceless bodies to put itself into, and = when it=20 finds them, it will be incarnated in them and they will do great acts of = evil.... Let each one of us consider himself... what were you doing on = the=20 evening when this unbelievable but very real act was carried out? = Indeed,=20 perhaps it was your sin, your depravity, your malice that provided the = last drop=20 of evil necessary for this child-killer's vessel of evil to overflow? = This is=20 how we must understand these matters if we are to call ourselves real = Christians=20 ["Weep!" translated from Russian in Orthodox Life, vol. 43, no. = 2, 1993,=20 pp. 38, 41-42].

4. List those points of difference which the = textbook=20 makes between the Orthodox and Protestant ideas of the Church.

Protestantism neglects the following aspects of the = Church,=20 which Orthodoxy regards as essential: the hierarchical structure of the = Church,=20 Apostolic Succession, the episcopate, the priesthood, prayers to the = saints, and=20 the Church's intercession for the departed.

5. In what sense is the Orthodox idea of the = Church=20 "certainly spiritual and mystical"?

The Orthodox idea of the Church is spiritual and = mystical in=20 the sense that Orthodox theology never deals with the earthly aspect of = the=20 Church in isolation from God. The Church is always thought of as the = Church of=20 Christ and the Holy Spirit, and in terms of the special relationship = existing=20 between the Church and God. The Orthodox doctrine of the Church is=20 Trinitarian (it sees the Church as an icon of the Holy Trinity); = it is=20 Christological (for the Church is the Body of Christ); and it is=20 Pneumatological (inasmuch as the Church is a continued Pentecost = and is a=20 temple and dwelling-place of the Holy Spirit.

6. The textbook lists three aspects of the = concept of=20 Church life: (1) The Image of the Holy Trinity; (2) The Body of Christ; = and (3)=20 A Continued Pentecost. Give your understanding of each.

(1) The Image of the Holy Trinity: The = textbook=20 mentions that this concept of the Church has broad applications. The = first is=20 that just as all men are created in the image of the Triune God, so the = Church=20 as a whole is an icon of the Trinity in that it reproduces on earth the = mystery=20 of unity in diversity. The Church contains a great many people who are = united=20 into one, yet each one maintains his own personal identity in the same = way that=20 the Persons of the Godhead, though one, are fully personal. Also, = the=20 mutual indwelling of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit is analogous to the = co=20 inherence of the members of the Church. There is no conflict in the = Church=20 between freedom and authority. There is unity, but never = totalitarianism. The=20 word catholic, when applied to the Church, means (among other = things)=20 this unity of many individuals into one.

Secondly, each Person of the Holy Trinity is = autonomous. This=20 characteristic is reflected in the Church, which consists of a number of = local=20 Churches such as Jerusalem, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Russia, = Georgia=20 and others. Archpriest Vladimir Glindsky explains that they are = independent in=20 their use of native language, and partly in their outward structure, but = they=20 are subject to a common canonical code, and, most importantly, all = present=20 dogmatic unity. Otherwise, among themselves, they are mutually = dependent, like=20 the members of the one Body of Christ, like the branches of one tree = nourished=20 by common roots. Here once again is the mystery of unity in diversity. = Also,=20 just as the Father, Son and Holy Spirit are equal, so also are the = bishops of=20 the Church. No single bishop can exercise (or claim to exercise) = absolute=20 authority over the others.

Lastly, the concept of the Church as an icon of the = Holy=20 Trinity demonstrates the importance Orthodoxy places on the councils, = which are=20 expressions of the Trinitarian nature of the Church. In a council, many = bishops=20 assemble in order to reach a common mind under the guidance of the Holy = Spirit.=20 In this manner also is shown the mystery of unity in diversity, which is = an=20 image of the Holy Trinity.

(2) The Body of Christ: The Apostle = Paul develops=20 this way of thinking about the Church in his epistle to the Romans: "We, = who are=20 many, are one body in Christ" (Rom. 12:5). St. Ignatius of Antioch,=20 understanding that there is the closest possible bond between Christ and = His=20 Church, wrote that "where Christ is, there is the Catholic Church." (The = Catholic Church, it bears repeating, means the Universal = Church to=20 which the Patriarchate of Rome was fully united when this Apostolic = Father wrote=20 these lines. The Catholic Church does not refer to the modern = Roman=20 Catholic Church which severed itself from the Universal Church of Christ = in=20 1054).

St. Ignatius=92 idea is in keeping with Christ's = promise that He=20 would forever be present, for He said: "Lo! I am with you always, even = to the=20 end of the world" (Mt 28:20). Christ also stated that: "Where two or = three are=20 gathered together in My name, there I am in the midst of them" (Mt = 18:20).=20 Christ therefore did not leave the Church when He ascended into Heaven. = The=20 textbook explains that the Church is "the extension of the Incarnation, = the=20 place where the Incarnation perpetuates itself." As the Greek theologian = Chrestos Androustos adds, the Church is:

... the center and organ of Christ's redeeming = work.... It is=20 nothing else than the continuation and extension of His prophetic, = priestly and=20 kingly power.... The Church and its Founder are inextricably bound = together....=20 The Church is Christ with us [Dogmatic Theology, pp. 262-65].

Above all else, it is the Holy Mysteries which bring = about the=20 unity between Christ and His Church. New Christians are buried and = raised with=20 Christ at Baptism, and as members of His Body, the Church, they receive = His=20 All-Pure Body and Blood in the Holy Eucharist. The Eucharist unites = Christians=20 at once to Christ and to one another, as the Apostle Paul explained to = the=20 Corinthians. "We, who are many, are one bread, one body; for we all = partake of=20 the one bread" (1 Cor 10:17). It was noted in chapter one that St. = Ignatius of=20 Antioch described the Church as a Eucharistic Society. It is not without = reason=20 that the term Body of Christ is used to describe both the Church = and the=20 Holy Mystery.

The Church is thought of first and foremost in its = sacramental=20 aspect. Outward organization, although completely necessary, is of = secondary=20 importance to the sacramental life of the Church.

(3) A Continued Pentecost: The work of the Son = and the=20 work of the Holy Spirit among men are complementary to one another. = Because the=20 Church is the Body of Christ, it is also the temple and dwelling-place = of the=20 Holy Spirit.

Christ unites Christians, it has been mentioned, but = this unity=20 in the Church has never involved the ironing out of human variety. Life = in the=20 Church involves the exact opposite, for the Holy Spirit is a Spirit of = freedom,=20 and He insures Christians' diversity. It is significant that when = He came=20 at Pentecost, He appeared as tongues of fire that were divided = and that=20 descended separately on all present. Although the Holy Spirit is = a gift=20 to the Church, He is also a personal gift that each appropriates in his = own way.=20 "There are diversities in gifts," St. Paul states, "but the same Spirit" = (1 Cor=20 12:4).

Some outside the Church feel that to be a Christian = is to have=20 a life of drab monotony. However, it is a life of evil that is dull, not = holiness. The saints all had very vivid and distinct personalities = through the=20 Holy Spirit's preservation of their human differences.

7. In what way does the textbook apply the = dogma of=20 Chalcedon to the Church?

The Council of Chalcedon taught that the Son of God = must be=20 confessed in two natures in one Person, or Hypostasis. The textbook = states the=20 dogma of Chalcedon must be applied to the Church as well as Christ, for = just as=20 Christ, the God-Man, has a divine and human nature, so too does the = Church,=20 where there is a synergy (cooperation) between the human and the = divine.

The textbook applies the dogma to show that it is not = to be=20 forgotten that there is a human element in the Church as well as = a=20 divine. However, it goes on to explain, there is an essential difference = so far=20 as the human aspect is concerned. Where Christ in His human nature is = perfect=20 and without sin, this is not fully the case with the Church's human = element, for=20 only a part of her humanity has attained perfection =97 the saints in = Heaven. The=20 Church is the Body of Christ and is therefore perfect and sinless, yet = its=20 individual members often misuse their freedom and are still imperfect = and=20 sinful. The textbook describes this condition as a state of tension in = which the=20 Church exists here on earth.

8. According to the textbook, the mystery of = the Church=20 consists in what?

The mystery of the Church consists in the fact that = sinners=20 together become something different from what they were as = individuals. Sinners in the Church together become the Body of = Christ.

9. From what principle does Khomiakov draw the = logical=20 conclusion that the Church is one?

Alexei Stepanovich Khomiakov, an influential and = authoritative=20 writer, was acknowledged by many as one of the greatest theologians ever = produced in Russia. Khomiakov draws the logical conclusion that the = Church is=20 one from the fact that God is one. "[The Church's] unity follows of = necessity=20 from the unity of God," he writes.

10. Can the Church be divided, or can there be = schisms=20 within the Church?

In the Nicene Creed, Christians confess their = belief in=20 "One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church." Oneness is the = first=20 of these four indispensable characteristics of Christ's Holy Church. The = Church=20 is not a set of different denominations having a common claim to follow = Christ=20 or to be founded by Him, united only in some invisible way by that = claim. The=20 Church, which is the Body of the Risen Incarnate God-Man Christ, can = never be=20 divided, for it is one as God is one. There can be only one Body of = Christ since=20 there is only one Christ. The Church remains and will always remain = one.=20 Therefore, there never were (nor can there ever be) schisms = within the=20 Church; there can only be schisms from the Church.

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky writes that Christ, = depicting=20 the Church in parables, speaks of one flock, of one = Shepherd, of=20 one grapevine, of one foundation-stone of the Church. = Christ=20 likewise gave a single teaching, a single Baptism, and a=20 single Communion. Again, the unity of the faithful in = Christ=20 comprised the subject of Christ's High-Priestly prayer before His = Crucifixion,=20 when He prayed "that they all may be one" (Jn 17:21). Elsewhere = Scripture=20 speaks of "one Lord, one faith, one Baptism" (Eph = 4:5), and=20 one Christian Church (Mt 16:18).

Fr. Michael goes on to explain that the Church is not = only=20 inwardly, but outwardly. Outwardly its unity is manifested in the = harmonious=20 confession of faith, in the oneness of divine services and Mysteries, in = the=20 oneness of the grace-giving hierarchy, which comes in succession from = the=20 Apostles, in the oneness of canonical order. Moreover, it bears = repeating=20 that:

The Church does not lose its unity because side by = side with=20 the Church there exist Christian societies which do not belong to it. = These=20 societies are not in the Church, they are outside of it [Orthodox = Dogmatic=20 Theology, p. 235].

Orthodoxy does not view the Church's unity as ideal = and=20 invisible, nor does it separate the "invisible" and "visible" Church, = for they=20 are one. Likewise, Orthodoxy would never say that the Church is = invisibly one=20 but visibly divided. In this regard, Hierodeacon Gregory of Etna, a = convert from=20 Dutch Reformed Protestantism to Orthodoxy, writes that when Protestants = attempt=20 to identify the Body of Christ, they invoke the nebulous notion of an = "invisible=20 Church" =97 a theological fiction that relativizes the ecclesial nature = of=20 Christianity by postulating an abstract reality that can be experienced = by=20 anyone, regardless of denomination. For this reason, the holy = Hieromartyr=20 Archbishop Ilarion (Troitsky) characterizes Protestantism as "Churchless = Christianity." The same martyr of the Communist yoke also declares that = "it is=20 Protestantism that openly proclaimed the greatest lie of all: that one = can be a=20 Christian while denying the Church." Elsewhere the martyr articulates = the=20 Orthodox view on this matter with no equivocation:

[It] must be considered as the most vital necessity = of the=20 present time to confess openly that indisputable truth that Christ = created=20 precisely the Church and that it is absurd to separate Christianity from = the=20 Church and to speak of some sort of Christianity apart from the Holy = Orthodox=20 Church of Christ [Christianity or the Church?, p. 29].

Here on earth, there is but one, single, visible = community=20 which alone is the one true Church established by Christ. The = "Undivided=20 Church" is not something that ceased to exist in 1054 (or at any other = point in=20 history); it is something that exists now.

The Roman Catholic Church proclaims that it is the = one Church,=20 and it recently reaffirmed its primacy with the document Dominus = Jesus,=20 dated September 5, 2000. This document, published by the Vatican's = Congregation=20 of the Doctrine of Faith (formerly the Office of the Inquisition) claims = that=20 "the fullness of means to salvation can only be found in the Roman = Catholic=20 Church." At the same time, however, according to one Catholic news = bulletin,=20 some Orthodox Churches "have maintained Apostolic Succession" and they = also=20 "represent the true Church." Thus, speaking out of one side of its = mouth, Rome=20 states that it is the one Church, and then, speaking out of the other = side of=20 its mouth, it states that some Orthodox Churches also represent the one = Church.=20 Where is the truth?

An Orthodox abbot gives this explanation of the true = Church and=20 its oneness:

The Orthodox Church, continuing the principles which = the=20 Apostles and early Fathers taught and which the Ecumenical Councils of = the=20 Undivided Church defined in precise terms, holds that the Church of = Christ is=20 ONE and cannot be divided. All divisions and separation from it = therefore=20 are from that One Church, not within it. One who breaks away from = the=20 faith or from the continuing organic structure of this Church ceases to = be a=20 member of it, no matter what position he may once have held within it; = he leaves=20 with nothing. A US citizen who leaves this country and becomes a citizen = in some=20 other country can no longer claim to be still a US citizen or to vote in = American elections =97 this is true even if he once held some high = office like a=20 judge, senator or governor. Orthodoxy teaches that orders and Sacraments = belong=20 to =97 that is, they are the property of =97 the Church, not to the = individual=20 person, and can be bestowed, held and exercised solely within its = organic=20 structure.

By the Church, Orthodoxy has always meant that = single,=20 worldwide body of mutually believing, mutually recognizing, = sacramentally united=20 Christians founded by our Lord Jesus Christ and descending without break = from=20 the Apostles: who are openly and visibly "in communion with" one another = and=20 with their united hierarchy. All the early Church Fathers and Councils = made it=20 abundantly clear that this unity of believers is absolutely essential, = and that=20 anyone who leaves that unity, for whatever reason, is an apostate, a = schismatic,=20 and outsider; no longer participating in the sacramental life of the = Church or=20 entitled to the privileges of its membership, unless he returns to the = unity and=20 renounces his errors. This was the unity prayed for by Christ in the = Gospels; it=20 was and still is far more essential in determining whether one is or is = not a=20 Church member than any "lines of Episcopal succession" or high-sounding=20 titles.

Therefore, any person who has ever broken from this = unity,=20 beginning with the early Christological heretics, and culminating with = Rome in=20 1054, left the actual, continuing unity of the One Church founded by = Christ, and=20 became apostate. Bishops who leave the Church cease being bishops, = whatever they=20 may continue to call themselves. They may (many do) invent new, = unscriptural=20 ecclesiologies which seek to justify their separation while continuing = to claim=20 that they somehow "kept their orders" and "perform valid Sacraments," = which, of=20 course, like a lamp unplugged from the source of electricity, they = cannot do.=20 Thus the Orthodox Church maintains that when Cardinal Humbert walked out = of=20 Saint Sophia [in Constantinople] in 1054, he left as an ordinary layman, = since=20 he (and his superior in Rome, and all who remained in communion with = him) ceased=20 being in open, formal communion with the rest of the Christian Church = which=20 continued holding Apostolic doctrine and polity. All who joined that = group of=20 men who left voluntarily the unity of the continuing Church have = remained=20 apostates and schismatics ever since, no matter how vast, wealthy and = vociferous=20 they may be in claiming otherwise.

Whoever either voluntarily sets himself apart from = the=20 continuing unity of the undivided Church founded by Christ, or who = alters the=20 teachings defined by that Church, ceases to be a member of it. = Orthodoxy=20 alone has remained unchanged throughout the centuries, both in her = doctrine and=20 in her organization; all other groups, however huge or widespread, and = however=20 they may choose to style themselves, are not Orthodox, not in = membership=20 in that One Church founded by Christ.

/.../ Undoubtedly God will have mercy and compassion = on all His=20 creation, including those devout and sincere souls who grew up in = religious=20 beliefs apart from Orthodoxy; He will surely take into account their = fidelity to=20 the principles they were taught and consider to be "Church teaching," = even=20 though they are not what the One continuing Church of Christ has always = held and=20 taught. This is not the issue. The point is that Christ founded only = ONE=20 Church; not many; and of all the competing religious bodies calling = themselves=20 Christian and Catholic and other such terms, only = ONE is in=20 actual fact the continuing Church which He founded. And this is THE = ORTHODOX=20 CHURCH [Abbot Augustine Whitfield, "Valid Orders," Orthodox = America,=20 vol. 9, no. 8, 1989, p. 16; emphasis added].

(It should be pointed out that when Cardinal Humbert = walked out=20 of St. Sophia's in Constantinople after the excommunication of the = entire East,=20 he actually did not leave as a layman in the Church, deprived only of = his=20 orders; he left as something even less. At that time, the cardinal had=20 completely separated himself from the continuing Church and was no = longer so=20 much a layman in it, much less a bishop. It can also be added that, = given the=20 situation in Rome a few years earlier, when there were three papal = pretenders,=20 it was hardly possible for Patriarch Michael of Constantinople to take = Cardinal=20 Humbert's behavior too seriously).

Concerning the Christian Churches outside Christ's = One Church,=20 Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky gives this insight:

The Orthodox teaching of the Church, which in itself = is quite=20 clear and rests upon Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition, is to be = contrasted=20 with another concept which is widespread in the contemporary Protestant = world=20 and has penetrated even into Orthodox circles. According to this = different=20 concept, all the various existing Christian organizations, the so-called = "confessions" and "sects," even though they are separated from each = other, still=20 comprise a single "invisible Church," inasmuch as each of them confesses = Christ=20 as the Son of God and accepts His Gospel. The dissemination of such a = view is=20 aided by the fact that side by side with the Orthodox Church there = exists=20 outside of her a number of Christians that exceeds by several times the = number=20 of members of the Orthodox Church. Often we can observe in this = Christian world=20 outside the Church a religious fervor and faith, a worthy moral life, a=20 conviction =97 all the way to fanaticism =97 of one's correctness, an = organization=20 and a broad charitable activity. What is the relation of all of them to = the=20 Church of Christ?

Of course, there is no reason to view these = confessions and=20 sects as on the same level with non-Christian religions. One cannot deny = that=20 the reading of the word of God has a beneficial influence upon everyone = who=20 seeks in it instruction and strengthening of faith, and that devout = reflection=20 on God the Creator, the Provider and Saviour, has an elevating power = among=20 Protestants also. We cannot say that their prayers are totally fruitless = if they=20 come from a pure heart, for in every nation he that feareth Him... is = acceptable with Him (Acts 10:35). The Omnipresent Good Provider God = is over=20 them, and they are not deprived of God's mercies. They help to restrain = moral=20 looseness, vices and crimes; and they oppose the spread of atheism.

But all this does not give us grounds to consider = them as=20 belonging to the Church. Already the fact that one part of this broad = Christian=20 world outside the Church, namely the whole of Protestantism, denies the = bond=20 with the heavenly Church, that is, the veneration in prayer of the = Mother of God=20 and the saints, and likewise prayer for the dead, indicates that they = themselves=20 have destroyed the bond with the one Body of Christ which unites in = itself the=20 heavenly and the earthly. Further, it is a fact that these non-Orthodox=20 confessions have "broken" in one form or another, directly or = indirectly, with=20 the Orthodox Church, with the Church in its historical form; they = themselves=20 have cut the bond, they have "departed" from her. Neither we nor they = have the=20 right to close our eyes to this fact. The teachings of the non-Orthodox=20 confessions contain heresies which were decisively rejected and = condemned by the=20 Church at her Ecumenical Councils. In these numerous branches of = Christianity=20 there is no unity, either outward or inward =97 either with the Orthodox = Church of=20 Christ or between themselves. The supra-confessional unification (the=20 "ecumenical movement") which is now to be observed does not enter into = the=20 depths of the life of these confessions, but has an outward character. = The term=20 "invisible" can refer only to the Heavenly Church. The Church on earth, = even=20 though it has its invisible side, like a ship, a part of which is hidden = in the=20 water and is invisible to the eyes, still remains visible, because it = consists=20 of people and has visible forms of organization and sacred activity.

Therefore it is quite natural to affirm that these = religious=20 organizations are societies which are "near," or "next to," or "close = to," or=20 perhaps even "adjoining" the Church, but sometimes "against" it; but = they are=20 all "outside" the one Church of Christ. Some of them have cut = themselves=20 off, others have gone far away. Some, in going away, all the same have=20 historical ties of blood with her; others have lost all kinship, and in = them the=20 very spirit and foundations of Christianity have been distorted. None of = them=20 find themselves under the activity of the grace which is present in the = Church,=20 and especially the grace which is given in the Mysteries of the Church. = They are=20 not nourished by that mystical table which leads up along the steps of = moral=20 perfection.

The tendency in contemporary cultural society to = place all=20 confessions on one level is not limited to Christianity; on this same=20 all-equaling level are placed also the non-Christian religions, on the = grounds=20 that they all "lead to God," and besides, taken all together, they far = surpass=20 the Christian world in the number of members who belong to them.

All of such "uniting" and "equalizing" views indicate = a=20 forgetfulness of the principle that there can be many teachings and = opinions,=20 but there is only one truth. And authentic Christian unity =97 unity in = the Church=20 =97 can be based only upon oneness of mind, and not upon differences of = mind. The=20 Church is the pillar and ground of the Truth (1 Tim 3:15) [Orthodox = Dogmatic=20 Theology, pp. 243-46].

11. Describe the theology of communion as set = forth in=20 the textbook.

The textbook calls Orthodoxy's theology of the Church = a=20 theology of communion. This term refers to the fact that it is the act = of=20 communion that holds the Church together.

St. Ignatius of Antioch saw each local Church as one = of a=20 congregation of faithful gathered around its bishop and celebrating the=20 Eucharist =97 such is his idea of the Church as a Eucharistic Society, = as=20 discussed in chapter one. The Church universal is then formed by the = communion=20 of the heads of these local Churches (the bishops) with one another. = Unity does=20 not come from without =97 that is, from the imposition of authority from = a supreme=20 pontiff, but it comes from within, by the celebration of the = Eucharist.=20 The Church is not and never has been monarchical (as Rome maintains); it = is=20 rather collegial. It is made up of the communion of many hierarchs with = one=20 another, and of the communion of each bishop with the members of his = flock. The=20 criterion for membership in the Church, therefore, is the act of = communion.=20 Church membership is ended, conversely, when an individual member severs = communion with his bishop. Likewise, a bishop ceases to be a member of = the=20 Church if he severs communion with his fellow bishops.

12. Give your understanding of the Orthodox = attitude=20 toward the branch theory.

The branch theory was once popular among High Church = Anglicans=20 and taught that the Christian Church was divided into branches. = Usually=20 three branches were given: Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism and Eastern=20 Orthodoxy.

The branch theory was subsequently taken up by the = ecumenists,=20 who initially applied it to Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism and all = denominations=20 of Protestantism. This theory maintains that all Christian Churches are = branches=20 of the same ecclesiastical organism, which is Christ, and it accepts all = Christian confessions as equal =97 that is, equally sharing bits and = pieces of the=20 truth.

Carrying the branch theory further, ecumenism now = contends that=20 there is a variety of doctrinal principles not only of individual = Christian=20 creeds, but of all religions. As the foundation of ecumenism's theory is = the=20 erroneous idea that there are many religious doctrines that mutually = enrich one=20 another. Thus, ecumenism promotes "love" above truth, ignorance of dogma = for the=20 sake of peace, and disregard of differences which tend to divide.

The branch theory is heretical as it contradicts Holy = Scripture, which speaks of "one Lord, one faith, = one=20 Baptism" (Eph 4:5), "one Holy Tradition" (2 Thes 2:15), and = "one=20 Christian Church" (Mt 16: 18). Also, as noted in an earlier chapter, = such a=20 false assertion invariably leads to a relativization of God's Truth. As=20 Archimandrite Sergius, former Assistant Professor at the Faculty of = Theology,=20 University of Sofia, Bulgaria, writes: "Orthodoxy is not just = one=20 of the many forms of Christianity, alongside other legitimate, = non-Orthodox=20 forms of Christianity; our Orthodox faith is Christianity itself, in = its most=20 pure and one and only authentic form."

As the branch theory is contrary to the fact that the = Church is=20 one, it cannot be reconciled with Sacred Scriptures and Orthodox = theology. The=20 only branches of the Church (if one wants to think in terms of branches) = are the=20 local autocephalous Churches of the Orthodox communion.

13. Write out the quotation from St. Cyprian = of Carthage=20 which the textbook uses to demonstrate the principle that there is = salvation=20 only within the Church.

St. Cyprian instructed: "A man cannot have God as his = Father if=20 he does not have the Church as his mother." In his book The = Non-Orthodox: the=20 Orthodox Teaching on Christians Outside the Church, Patrick Barnes, = a=20 convert to Orthodoxy, comments that this statement is one of the "hard = sayings"=20 (Jn 6:60) for people offended by any ecclesiological exclusivity. Mr. = Barnes,=20 whose own search for the truth took him through various = non-denominational=20 Protestant Churches while at the United States Naval Academy, then to = the=20 Presbyterian Church, the Episcopal Church, and finally to Orthodox = Christianity,=20 understands from experience that this idea runs contrary to everything=20 Protestants have been taught about the nature of the Church. = Protestants, he=20 states, wrestle with the issue of Orthodoxy's claim to be the one true = Ark of=20 Salvation (1 Peter 3:20 ff.) established by Christ and preserving = unadulterated=20 the very criterion of Christianity. However, the former Protestant goes = on to=20 point out, Christ was "exclusive" when He said: "I am the Way, the Truth = and the=20 Life, no man cometh unto the Father except by Me" (Jn 14:6). Mr. = Barnes=20 notes that since the Church is Christ's Body (Eph 1:22-23), then = no one=20 can come to the Father except through Christ's Church. Scripture = clearly=20 teaches that Christ, as encountered through His Holy Church, is the only = door to=20 the narrow way which leads to life (Mt 7:13-14, Jn 10:7). Mr. Barnes = also notes=20 that Orthodoxy does not hold its exclusive claims out of arrogance, but = out of=20 love for its traditions. Orthodoxy has maintained the integrity of = faith, this=20 convert discovered, and with open arms it offers that faith to outsiders = (as he=20 once was) in the pure form as it was handed down from Christ and the=20 Apostles.

14. How does the textbook modify St. Cyprian's = statement?

The textbook modifies St. Cyprian's statement with=20 non-patristic speculation. It begins by citing Blessed Augustine's = correct=20 assertion that there are sheep outside the Church and wolves within. = Thus, not=20 all in the Church will be saved, it is noted.

Mr. Barnes, the same convert to Orthodoxy, writes = that=20 unfortunately, this introduction with Blessed Augustine's comment could = lead one=20 to an improper understanding of Orthodox ecclesiology and the status of=20 heterodox Christians. When taken in context, this Father's remark does = not=20 support the textbook's later comment concerning an invisible Church = membership=20 or its comment that the heterodox may be linked to the Church by = "invisible=20 bonds." The textbook's statements in this regard can easily be misread = in=20 support of the non-Orthodox notion of an "invisible true Church," = especially in=20 the light of its claim that "we know where the Church is but we cannot = say where=20 it is not."

Mr. Barnes again comments. He first notes that there = is no=20 doubt that Blessed Augustine believes in the necessity of visible = membership in=20 the Church for salvation, a teaching that is found throughout the = writings of=20 the Holy Fathers. The same writer then makes the correct observation = that the=20 textbook incorrectly uses the word Church in two senses. Thus, he = continues, when taken with the textbook's other remarks, one can read = its (the=20 textbook's) assertion as follows: "We know where the [visible, = historical and=20 one true] Church is, but we cannot be sure where it [the Church in an=20 undefinable or mysterious sense known only to God and containing people = who are=20 united by 'invisible ties'] is not." Mr. Barnes observes that this kind = of=20 thinking is not far removed from the heretical branch theory.

Theorizing with regard to those outside the Church, = the=20 textbook also states that many people, notwithstanding their outward = separation,=20 could possibly be members of the Church, inasmuch as there are many ways = of=20 being related to-, and separated from-, the Church. Just how and to what = extent=20 they are members is impossible to determine, the text's writer opines, = for it is=20 known to God alone. However, he concludes, a person must belong to the = Church in=20 some sense in order to be saved.

In connection with the textbook's careless lapse in = an=20 elementary point of theology in this matter, Hieromonk Patapios of Etna = writes=20 that the Church on earth is a visible organism through which its members = are=20 united to God and one another by their participation in the Holy = Mysteries=20 (Sacraments). Thus, to be "invisibly" linked to the Orthodox Church = without the=20 benefit of its Mysteries is of no avail whatsoever, Fr. Patapios states. = Either=20 one belongs to the Church or one does not.

Mr. Barnes explains that the status of heterodox = Christians is=20 seen in two ways. With regard to their ecclesial status =97 that is, in = their=20 relation to the Orthodox Church, they cannot be seen as its members as = they have=20 not been grafted into the true Body of Christ through Holy Baptism. On = the other=20 hand, with regard to their eternal status =97 that is, in the = implications of=20 their ecclesial separation, the Orthodox leave them to the mercy of God = and do=20 not pass judgment on them or make any pronouncements about their eternal = destiny. To affirm their separation is not to imply their damnation.

The same writer further states that in keeping with = its=20 apophatic mindset, the Orthodox Church remains circumspect on this = matter. Thus,=20 to state that there is "no salvation outside the Church" is not the same = as=20 saying that "no one outside the Church can be saved." Sacred Scriptures = show=20 that ultimately, God looks upon the heart of man and has mercy upon = those whom=20 He chooses to have mercy (Rom 9:18), and that He rewards each according = to his=20 intentions and deeds (Rom 2:6 ff.). Therefore, concerning those who were = never=20 afforded the opportunity to encounter Orthodoxy, God can save them.

In the concluding remarks of his book, Mr. Barnes = makes the=20 following remarks to a Reformed Protestant who expressed an interest in=20 Orthodoxy:

There are certain things that God has chosen not to = reveal to=20 us. One of these is how He will ultimately judge others on that Day. He = has=20 revealed certain aspects of that Day of Judgment in order that we may = repent and=20 prepare ourselves; but He has not told us how He will =97 in His = infinite=20 knowledge of our incredibly complex nature and His providential ordering = of our=20 lives =97 ultimately weigh each of us in the balance. "For My thoughts = are not=20 your thoughts, neither are your ways My ways, saith the Lord. For as the = heavens=20 are higher than the earth, so are My ways higher than your ways, and My = thoughts=20 than your thoughts" (Isaiah 55:8-9). This being true, we should not = concern=20 ourselves with whether God will save others or how. For us it is enough = to know=20 where and how we can be saved. We affirm this to be only within the = Orthodox=20 Church; but we can also make a compelling case from Holy Tradition that = we do=20 not also have to affirm that He will not save a portion of those who do = not=20 enter the Church in this life [The Non-Orthodox: the Orthodox = Teaching on=20 Christians Outside of the Church, p. 173].

Mr. Barnes' conclusions are in complete accord with = some=20 remarks that St. Theophan the Recluse once made to an inquirer who asked = about=20 the possibility of salvation of those outside the Church. The saint = replied:

Why do you worry about them? They have a Saviour, Who = desires=20 the salvation of every human being. He will take care of them. You and I = should=20 not be burdened with such a concern. Study yourself and your sins.... I = will=20 tell you one thing, however: should you, being Orthodox, and possessing = the=20 Truth in its fullness, betray Orthodoxy and enter a different faith, you = will=20 lose your soul forever.

It is recorded in his hagiography that St. Nektary, = one of the=20 elders of the famous Optina Hermitage in Russia, once told his disciples = that:

In the last times the world will be girded about with = iron and=20 paper. But such were the days of Noah: the flood was drawing near. Noah = knew=20 about it and told the people, but they did not believe. He hired workers = to=20 build the ark, and they, building the ark, did not believe, for which = reason=20 they only received wages for their work but were not saved. Those days = are the=20 foreshadowing of our own days. The ark is the Church. Only those who are = inside=20 will be saved.

One of Elder Nektary's spiritual children then = inquired: "But=20 what about the millions of Chinese, Indians, Turks and other = non-Christians?"=20 The elder replied:

God desires not only that the nations be saved, but = each=20 individual soul. A simple Indian, believing in his own way in the = Creator and=20 fulfilling His will as best he can, will be saved; but he who, knowing = about=20 Christianity, follows the Indian mystical path, will not [Ivan = Kontzevitch,=20 Elder Nektary of Optina, p. 181].

Metropolitan Philaret, former First Hierarch of the = Russian=20 Orthodox Church Outside Russia, expressed the same views. He wrote:

It is self-evident... that sincere Christians who are = Roman=20 Catholics, or Lutherans, or members of other non-Orthodox confessions, = cannot be=20 termed renegades or heretics =97 that is, those who knowingly = pervert the=20 truth.... They have been born and raised and are living according to the = creed=20 which they have inherited, just as do the majority of you who are = Orthodox; in=20 their lives there has not been a moment of personal and conscious=20 renunciation of Orthodoxy. The Lord, "Who will have all men to be = saved" (1=20 Tim. 2:4) and "Who enlightens every man born into the world" (Jn 1:9),=20 undoubtedly is leading them also towards salvation in His own way [From = the=20 pamphlet "Will the Heterodox Be Saved?" (Leaflet #213 published by the = St. John=20 of Kronstadt Press)].

15. Give your understanding of the principle = of the=20 infallibility of the Church.

The unity between God and His Church is spoken of = throughout=20 Scriptures, in which the Church is referred to as the Body of = Christ (Eph=20 1:22-23, Rom 12, 1 Cor 10,12, Col 1); the Bride of Christ (Eph 5, = Rev=20 21); God's Living Temple (Eph 2, 1 Peter 2); and the pillar = and ground=20 of the Truth (1 Tim 3:15). The Church is a living organism against = which=20 even the gates of hell shall not prevail (Mt 16:18), which has as = its=20 Head Christ Himself abiding with it always, even to the end of = the=20 age (Mt 28:20).

It is from this unity with God that the Church as a = whole=20 cannot err. The Church cannot submit to false teaching, and it cannot = allow any=20 admixture of falsehood. An error of the whole Church would be tantamount = to its=20 spiritual death, yet, according to Christ's promise, the Church cannot = die. As=20 Protopriest Victor Potapov explains:

If the Orthodox Church as a whole cannot err, her = individual=20 members, individual gatherings and groups, and even large parts of her = can fall=20 into error. And since the opinion of the whole Church is manifested at=20 Ecumenical Councils, the Ecumenical Councils are the infallible = custodians and=20 interpreters of divine revelation =97 not because the members of the = Councils are=20 individually infallible, but because the decisions of the Councils are = the voice=20 of the whole Church, which is directed by the grace of the Holy Spirit = (the=20 decisions of the Councils always begin with the words: "It seemed good = to the=20 Holy Spirit and to us") [Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy].

Additional pertinent information regarding the = infallibility of=20 the Church is provided by Fr. John Whiteford:

Not only must we seek that which is universal and = ancient, we=20 must further hold to those teachings which represent the consensus of = the=20 Fathers, rather than the isolated views of a given Father or teacher. = This is=20 what is meant by consent, or the faith believed by all.=20 Infallibility resides in no individual in the Church save Christ = alone,=20 and so there are examples of Fathers who, while generally teaching the = faith=20 accurately, at times taught things which were in error. The difference = between=20 these Fathers and the heretics is that the Fathers taught these things = in=20 innocence, while heretics teach heresy in opposition to the Church and = despite=20 attempts at correction. Even St. Paul erred, but was corrected by St. = Paul (see=20 Gal 2). Twice in Revelation, St. John tells how he worshiped an angel, = then was=20 corrected by that angel! [Sola Scriptura: an Orthodox Analysis of the = Cornerstone of Reformation Theology, p. 42; emphasis added].

16. Give your understanding of the position of = the=20 bishop in the Church.

The hierarchy was established by Christ. As St. = Paul=20 instructs:

"He gave some, Apostles; and some, prophets; and = some,=20 Evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers; for the perfecting of = saints, for=20 the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the Body of Christ; till = we all=20 come in the unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, = unto a=20 perfect man, unto the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ" = (Eph=20 4:11-13).

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky explains that:

All members of the Church of Christ comprise a single = flock of=20 God. All are equal before the judgment of God. However, just as parts of = the=20 body have different functions in the life of the organism, and as in a = house=20 building each part has its own use, so also in the Church there exist = various=20 ministries. The highest ministry in the Church as an organization is = borne by=20 the hierarchy, which is distinct from the ordinary members [Orthodox = Dogmatic=20 Theology, p. 246].

Archpriest Seraphim Slobodskoy goes on to note that = following=20 the example of the Old Testament Church, in which there were a high = priest,=20 priests, and Levites, the Apostles also instituted in the New Testament=20 Christian Church the priesthood: bishops, priests, and deacons. Of = these, the=20 bishops comprise the highest rank in the Church, and bishops therefore = receive=20 the highest degree of grace.

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky additionally notes = that:

The Lord Jesus Christ during His earthly ministry = chose from=20 among His followers twelve disciples =97 the Apostles (those "sent = forth") =97=20 giving to them special spiritual gifts and a special authority. = Appearing to=20 them after His Resurrection, He said to them, As My Father hath sent = Me, even=20 so send I you. And when He had said this, He breathed on them, and saith = unto=20 them, Receive ye the Holy Spirit. Whose soever sins ye remit, they are = remitted=20 unto them: and whose soever sins ye retain, they are retained (Jn = 20:=20 21-23). These words mean that it is essential to be sent from above in = order to=20 fulfill the Apostolic ministry, as well as the pastoral ministry that = follows=20 after it. The scope of these ministries is expressed in the final words = of the=20 Lord to His disciples before His Ascension: Go ye therefore, and = teach all=20 nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and = of the=20 Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have = commanded=20 you. And, lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of the world. = Amen.=20 (Mt 28:19-20). In these final words the Saviour indicates the triple = ministry of=20 the Apostles in their mission: 1) to teach, 2) to perform sacred = functions=20 (baptize), and 3) to govern (teaching them to observe all things"). And = in the=20 words "I am with you always, even to the end of the world," He blessed = the=20 pastoral work of their successors for all times to the end of the ages, = until=20 the existence of the earthly Church itself should come to an end. The = words of=20 the Lord cited before this, "Receive ye the Holy Spirit" (Jn 20:21), = testify=20 that this authority of pastorship is inseparably united with special = gifts of=20 the grace of the Holy Spirit. The three hierarchical ministries are = united in a=20 single concept of pastorship, in accordance with the expression = of the=20 Lord Himself: Feed My lambs, feed My sheep (the words to the Apostle = Peter in Jn=20 21:15, 17), and of the Apostles: Feed the flock of God (1 Peter = 5:2).

The Apostles were always citing the ides of the = divine=20 institution of the hierarchy. It was by a special rite that the = Apostle=20 Matthias was joined to the rank of the twelve in place of Judas who had = fallen=20 away (Acts 1). This rite was the choosing of worthy persons, followed by = prayer=20 and the drawing of lots. The Apostles themselves chose successors for = themselves=20 through ordination. These successors were the=20 bishops [Op. cit. pp. 246-47; emphasis added].

Again, Fr. Michael stresses, "The Apostles =97 those = precisely=20 among them who were called to the highest ministry in the Church by the = Lord=20 Himself =97 placed bishops as their immediate successors and = continuers."=20 Moreover, he adds, the Apostles placed "presbyters as their own = helpers=20 and as helpers of the bishops, as 'hands' of the bishops, placing the = further=20 matter of the ordination of presbyters with the bishops." [Ibid., = p.=20 248].

Commenting on Apostolic Succession and the = uninterruptedness of=20 the Orthodox Church's episcopate, Fr. Michael notes that:

The succession from the Apostles and the = uninterruptedness of=20 the episcopacy comprise one of the essential sides of the Church. And, = on the=20 contrary: the absence of the succession of the episcopacy in one or = another=20 Christian denomination deprives it of an attribute of the true Church, = even if=20 in it there is present an undistorted dogmatic teaching. Such an = understanding=20 was present to the Church from its beginning. From the Church History of = Eusebius of Caesarea we know that all the local ancient Christian = Churches=20 preserved lists of their bishops in their uninterrupted succession=20 [Ibid., p. 253].

As was noted in the introduction of this book, there = is a=20 twofold nature to Apostolic Succession. First, there must be an unbroken = historical consecration of the hierarchy from the hands of the Apostles = =97 that=20 is, an uninterrupted chain of ordinations of bishops back to the = Apostles.=20 Secondly, there must be uncompromising fidelity to the correct doctrines = and=20 correct practices established by the Apostles. As the introduction also = states,=20 the Roman Catholic Church cannot demonstrate an unchanged faith or = unchanged=20 practices as it deviated from both Apostolic teachings and Apostolic = practices.=20 Apostolic Succession was severed in the West as of Rome's departure from = the=20 Apostolic Church in 1054, although it continued in the Eastern Orthodox = Church,=20 whose bishops to this day have a living continuity with the Holy = Apostles.

Regarding the equality of the Church's bishops, = Protopresbyter=20 Michael Pomazansky writes that:

Among the bishops there are some who are leaders by = their=20 position, but not by their hierarchical, grace-given dignity. = Thus it was=20 also among the Apostles themselves.... The mutual relations of the = Apostles were=20 built upon the foundation of hierarchical equality.... The same mutual = relations=20 according to the principle of hierarchical grace-given equality remains = forever=20 in the Church among the successors of the Apostles =97 the bishops = [Ibid.,=20 p. 252].

Archpriest Seraphim Slobodskoy stresses the same, = that all=20 bishops are equal. He adds that the most deserving of bishops are called = archbishops, while the bishops whose sees are centered in major cities = are=20 called metropolitans (after the Greek word metropolis, a large = city).=20 Also, bishops of ancient major cites of the Roman Empire =97 = Constantinople,=20 Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem =97 are called patriarchs, a title = that is also=20 used for bishops of the capitals of some Orthodox countries.

There is no bishop in Orthodoxy with an equivalent = position to=20 the Roman pope. The patriarch of Constantinople, ever since the = East-West schism=20 of 1054, has traditionally enjoyed a position of special honor among all = Orthodox communities, but he does not have a right to interfere in the = actual=20 affairs of the other Churches.

In Scripture, the Church is represented as the Bride = of Christ,=20 and this union with Him is presented in the image of the marital bond = (Eph 5,=20 Rev 21). Likewise, the bishop, as the highest pastor of the Church and = the image=20 of Christ, is represented in Church teaching as the guardian of her = spiritual=20 virginity =97 that is, inner purity in faith, life, and in all her = activity in the=20 world. Therefore a bishop is betrothed to the Church, as the Apostle = Paul speaks=20 of himself in relation to the Corinthian Church (2 Cor 11:2). This bond = of a=20 bishop with his diocese must be exclusive and single. When a Church or = group of=20 Christians is left without a bishop, it is called "widowed." These = concepts were=20 so strictly understood in the ancient Church that the occupation of two = sees was=20 called bigamy, and the unlawful occupation by a bishop of another's see = was=20 considered adultery.

Since ancient times, Orthodox bishops have been = unmarried and=20 celibate. With the complete renunciation of carnal and worldly ties, a = bishop's=20 union with the Church and his diocese is completely pure, spiritual, and = independent of the flesh and world, as is proper for a bridegroom of the = Church.=20 This attitude of the Church was given formal definition in the canon of = the=20 Sixth Ecumenical Council in 680, and this definition is a strict rule = for all=20 time in the absence of another Ecumenical Council.

As a bishop explains regarding this canon, the rise = of=20 monasticism in the fourth century gave the Church many great bishops on = the one=20 hand, and on the other hand gave a lofty understanding of bodily = abstinence.=20 Inasmuch as the bishop's rank is the highest in the Church, all the more = must a=20 bishop's life be directed to total service to God and Church in body and = soul.=20 This consciousness contributed to the fact that, already in the fourth = century,=20 unmarried bishops were regarded as naturally basic to Church order.

The same bishop also notes that even earlier than the = Sixth=20 Ecumenical Council, a council was called in Carthage in 390. This = council's=20 second canon prescribed that a bishop must be unmarried and preserve his = virginity, and as the basis for this decree, the Fathers of the council = referred=20 to Apostolic Tradition preserved by the Church from ancient times. Other = testimonies as well show how deeply rooted was the practice of = appointing only=20 unmarried persons as bishops. It is also shown that the majority of = bishops came=20 from the monks and that these monastic bishops were the greatest = luminaries of=20 the Church.

Writing of the bishop's position in the Church, St. = Dositheus,=20 Patriarch of Jerusalem, states:

The dignity of the bishop is so necessary for the = Church that=20 without him neither the Church nor the name Christian could exist or be = spoken=20 of at all.... He is the living image of God upon earth... and a fountain = of all=20 the Mysteries [Sacraments] of the Catholic [Universal] Church, through = which we=20 obtain salvation.

St. Cyprian of Carthage, who, as mentioned, was one = of the most=20 authoritative of the early Fathers of the Church, and who was beheaded = in 258,=20 explains that "if any are not with the bishop, they are not in the = Church." This=20 comment refers to the fact that since Christ is made manifest in His = Church=20 through the ministry of the bishops, to sever communion with an Orthodox = bishop=20 means that one is cut off from the Church.

The bishop's dignity that St. Dositheus spoke of is = derivative=20 of his threefold power of ruling, teaching, and celebrating = the=20 Mysteries, capacities with which he is endowed by the Holy Spirit = when he is=20 consecrated. Regarding the ruling function, a bishop is called = upon by=20 God to rule and guide the flock entrusted to him. Episkopos in = Greek=20 means overseer, and a bishop is just that: an overseer of his = community=20 (diocese). He is also a monarch within his diocese, although not in the=20 connotative sense of being a harsh and impersonal tyrant, for his is = guided by=20 the law of Christian love in the exercising of his ministry.

A bishop is called upon to be a teacher of the faith = and to=20 proclaim the truth =97 such is his teaching office, which is the = special=20 charisma he receives from the Holy Spirit at his consecration. The = teaching=20 ministry is performed first and foremost in the celebration of the = Eucharist,=20 when he delivers sermons, or when other members of the Church (priests = or=20 laymen) act as the bishop's delegates in delivering sermons.

Celebrating the Mysteries is another function = of a=20 bishop, and this occupation is aptly summarized in St. Dositheus=92 = description of=20 the bishop as "the fountain of all the Mysteries." The bishop was = usually the=20 celebrant of the Eucharist in the primitive Church. However, presbyters=20 (priests, the second rank of the sacred ministry under the bishop) may = serve,=20 with an episcopal blessing, all the Mysteries and Church services, save = that of=20 the Mystery of Ordination and the sanctification of holy chrism or an = antimens=20 (antimension). From the Apostle James, it is seen that priests performed = the=20 Church's sacred rites (James 5:14), and also that in the early Church = there=20 could be several priests in each community, whereas only one bishop was=20 appointed for a city and the region around it. Priests act as the = bishops'=20 deputies when they celebrate the Holy Liturgy.

Additional duties of the bishop include the = ordination of=20 clergy. He alone ordains all the orders except for the order of bishop, = for=20 which at least two bishops are needed.

The bishop also consecrates churches. It is the = bishop's job to=20 oversee and administer all the churches in his diocese. No church can be = built=20 without his permission.

Bishops also consecrate the antimins used on the = altar (see=20 chapter 11) and bless chrism. In the early Church, as the number of = converts=20 continued to grow, it became physically impossible for an Apostle or = bishop=20 personally to lay hands upon each. The Church therefore began to bless a = mixture=20 of oil and spices, or chrism, which, when applied by a priest and = accompanied by=20 specified prayers, acts in the same way as a physical laying on of = hands. New=20 chrism is periodically blessed and the old chrism is added to it, thus=20 perpetuating a chain of blessing reaching all the way back to the early=20 Church.

In addition to the special ordained ministry = conferred through=20 the Mystery of Holy Orders, a bishop is involved with yet another = ministry,=20 although not one limited to his rank alone. This bishop and all = Christians alike=20 are prophets and priests, for the Holy Spirit is given to all Christians = alike.=20 This fact was especially apparent in the Apostolic Church where, not = only was=20 there an institutional ministry bestowed directly by the laying on of = hands, but=20 where God-given gifts were bestowed directly by the Holy Spirit. Of = these gifts,=20 the Apostle Paul mentions the working of miracles, healing, speaking in = tongues,=20 etc. (1 Corinthians). Although not so much evident in modern times, = these gifts=20 have nonetheless been visible on occasion throughout the Church's = history. They=20 were especially prominent in nineteenth-century Russia in the ministry = of the=20 elder. Eldership, rather than being received through ordination, was = received=20 directly from the Holy Spirit and was exercised by laymen, in addition = to=20 priests and bishops.

The textbook sums up the bishop's position in the = Church with=20 the reminder that even though a bishop's authority is fundamentally that = of the=20 Church, he is not to be thought of as someone set up over the = Church.=20 Instead, a bishop is in the Church as one of its members, and he is a = holder of=20 an office within the Church. Pastor and flock are united in an = organic=20 bond so that neither the bishop nor the people can properly be though of = in=20 isolation from the other. St. Cyprian states in brief: "The Church is = the people=20 united to the bishop, the flock clinging to its shepherd. The bishop is = in the=20 Church and the Church is in the bishop."

Lastly, it is important to note that a bishop's = charisma does=20 not guarantee that he will not fall into error and preach false = doctrine, for he=20 is still a man and is thus capable of making mistakes. Here once again = is the=20 principle of synergy: the divine element does not eliminate the human. = While the=20 Church as a whole is infallible, no individual member of it is = infallible, save=20 Christ, its Head. Given these facts, one can all the better understand = how a=20 vast number of hierarchs in modern times have entered into apostasy with = their=20 involvement with the end-times phenomenon of the panheresy of ecumenism. = Speaking of this apostasy, Archbishop Theophan of Poltava and = Pereyaslavka,=20 confessor to the last imperial family of Russia, writes:

Regarding the affairs of the Church, in the words of = the=20 Saviour, one of the most awesome phenomena of the final days is that at = that=20 time "the stars shall fall from heaven" (Mt 24:29). According to = the=20 Saviour=92s own explanation, these stars are the angels of the = Churches, in=20 other words, the bishops (Rev 1:20). The religious and moral fall = of the=20 bishops is thus one of the most characteristic signs of the final days. = The fall=20 of the bishops is particularly horrifying when they deviate from the = doctrines=20 of the faith, or, as the Apostle Paul put it, when they "would pervert = the=20 Gospel of Christ" (Gal 1:7) [Selected Letters, p. 44].

17. What limitation of the bishop's authority = does the=20 textbook mention?

The textbook mentions that no one bishop can claim to = wield=20 absolute power over the rest. The Church has never been monarchical, = centered=20 around any single bishop, as Rome later came to maintain. Prior to the = Great=20 Schism of 1054, Rome's bishop had no more authority than that granted to = any of=20 the patriarchs of the East.

18. Write out a) the quotation from the = patriarchal=20 letter of 1848 to the pope, and b) Khomiakov's comment on this=20 statement.

Patriarchal letter of 1848 to the pope:

Among us, neither patriarchs nor councils could ever = introduce=20 new teaching, for the guardian of religion is the very body of the = Church, that=20 is, the people itself.

Khomiakov's comment to this statement:

The pope is greatly mistaken in supposing that we = consider the=20 ecclesiastical hierarchy to be the guardian of dogma. The case is quite=20 different. The unvarying constancy and the unerring truth of Christian = dogma=20 does not depend upon any hierarchical order; it is guarded by the = totality, by=20 the whole people of the Church, which is the Body of Christ.

19. What is the position of the laity in the=20 Church?

The Holy Spirit's gifts are poured out on the laity = according=20 to God's economy of salvation, and the laity share with the bishops and = clergy=20 in being guardians of the truth. While they do not participate in the = bishop's=20 divinely appointed office of teaching and proclaiming the truth, they do = guard=20 it, for all of God's people possess the truth (Christian dogma). As=20 Archimandrite Adrianos, a former abbot of St. Catherine's Monastery on = Mount=20 Sinai, notes in this regard:

A decision of the Orthodox Church is never imposed = from above,=20 as it is by papism: the people of God are the defenders of the faith, = wielding a=20 veto, rejecting whatever is contrary to Tradition, and even judging the=20 Orthodoxy of any ecumenical synod that can be characterized as a "robber = synod."=20 [A Letter of Orthodox Confession, p. 6].

The laity can also take part in the Councils, as did = St.=20 Constantine and other Roman (Byzantine) emperors. However, all final = decisions=20 and formal proclamations of faith in a Council are strictly the = prerogatives of=20 bishops by virtue of their teaching charisma.

20. Why, according to the textbook, do we pray for = the=20 reposed?

Protopriest Victor Potapov compares the Orthodox = practice of=20 praying for the reposed with the rejection of that practice on the part = of the=20 Protestants. Fr. Victor writes that:

The Orthodox confession of faith is completed by a = lively=20 expectation of the resurrection of the dead and the life of the age to = come.=20 Whoever does not believe in the future life, whoever does not believe in = the=20 future last, righteous judgment of God, whoever does not believe in a = recompense=20 for the righteous and punishment for evil is not Orthodox and is not a=20 Christian.

Whereas we Orthodox believe in the efficacious power = of prayer=20 for the dead, sectarians reject prayers for the dead on the grounds that = there=20 is no direct commandment in Sacred Scripture concerning prayer for the = dead and=20 because a man's fate beyond the grave supposedly depends exclusively on = what he=20 himself was personally during his earthly life and, finally, because = believers=20 have one Mediator =97 the Saviour Jesus Christ Himself.

But if prayer for the dead is really not spoken of = directly in=20 the Word of God, this our duty with regard to them follows of itself = from the=20 obligation of Christians to support the communion of love between = themselves,=20 which is, with regard to the dead, expressed in prayers for them. The = Apostle=20 James persuades us to pray for one another (James 5:16) and adds that = "the=20 effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much"; the Apostle = Paul=20 exhorts to pray for all men (1 Tim 2:1); St. John the Theologian =97 = especially=20 for sinners (1 Jn 5:16). One must not presuppose that these exhortations = related=20 only to the living, since the dead are also members of Christ's Church, = just as=20 we are, and a man's death, from the Christian point of view, ought not = to break=20 the communion existing between him and those remaining among the living. = "For He=20 is not a God of the dead, but of the living: for all live unto Him," = says the=20 Lord Jesus Christ (Lk 20:38). "Whether we live therefore, or die, we are = the=20 Lord's," teaches the Apostle Paul (Rom 14:8).

As for the citations by the Protestants on passages = in Sacred=20 Scripture wherein the matter concerns the recompense to each man = according to=20 his works (Ps 6:6, Gal 6: 7, 2 Cor 5:10 and others), these passages = speak either=20 about the fact that the dead themselves cannot change their lot or about = the=20 condition of the dead after the Dread Judgment; but the benefit of = prayers for=20 the dead is not denied.

Finally, it is completely true that our Saviour, the = Lord Jesus=20 Christ, is the "one Mediator between God and men." Thus the Orthodox = Church=20 teaches, and thus it is said repeatedly in Sacred Scripture, especially = often in=20 the epistles of the Apostle Paul. But, after all, we Orthodox, in our = requiem=20 prayers, do turn precisely to Him, our Saviour, as children of His = Church.

Commemoration of the dead and Church prayers for them = are a=20 primordial, Apostolic Tradition of the Church, preserved wholly in her=20 throughout all the centuries. Already in the fifth century, St. Cyril of = Jerusalem, a participant in the Second Ecumenical Council, in explaining = the=20 structure of the divine services and mysteries to the catechumens who = had=20 entered the Church in his time, wrote apropos of the Church's = commemoration of=20 the dead at the Liturgy: "It will be a very great advantage to the = souls, for=20 whom the supplication is put up, while [the Holy Sacrifice] is = presented"=20 [Mystagogical Catechesis V, ch. 9]. Particles taken out from the=20 prosphoras in commemoration of the living and the dead are placed on the = discos=20 at the foot of the Lamb, where they remain until that moment when they = are put=20 into the chalice with the words: "By Thy precious blood, O Lord, wash = away the=20 sins of those commemorated here, through the prayers of the saints."=20 [Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy].

There is no division between the living and departed = in God and=20 in His Church. Whether alive or dead, all belong to a single family, and = all are=20 one in the love of God.

The departed members of the Church continue to live = after=20 death, only in a different form than here on earth, and they are not = deprived of=20 spiritual nearness to those who remain on earth. Thus the bond of prayer = with=20 them on the part of the pilgrim Church on earth does not stop. "Neither = death=20 nor life... shall be able to separate us from the love of God, which is = in=20 Christ Jesus our Lord" (Rom 8:38). The departed need only one kind of = help from=20 those on earth: prayer and petition for the remission of their sins.

The Church Militant prays for its members who have = died with=20 true repentance. In praying for them as well as for those who are alive, = the=20 Church follows the words of the Apostle Paul: "Whether we live = therefore, or=20 die, we are the Lord's. For this end Christ both died and rose, and = revived,=20 that He might be Lord both of the dead and the living" (Rom 14:8-9). For = this=20 reason, the faithful departed are remembered in this prayer of the Holy=20 Liturgy:

Again we offer unto Thee this reasonable worship for = those who=20 have fallen asleep in the faith: ancestors, fathers, patriarchs, = prophets,=20 Apostles, preachers, Evangelists, martyrs, confessors, ascetics, and = every=20 righteous spirit made perfect in faith.

The custom of praying for the dead also existed in = the Old=20 Testament Church. In the days of the pious leader of the Jews, Judas = Maccabeus,=20 an inspection of those who had been killed in battle revealed that in = their=20 garments was plunder from the gifts offered to idols. At that time, all = the Jews=20 "blessed the ways of the Lord, the righteous Judge, Who reveals the = things that=20 are hidden; and they turned to prayer, beseeching that the sin which had = been=20 committed might be wholly blotted out." Judas Maccabeus himself sent to=20 Jerusalem to "provide for a sin offering. In doing this he acted well = and=20 honorably" (2 Mac 12:39-46).

Christ stated that "whoever speaketh a word against = the Son of=20 Man, it shall be forgiven him; but whosoever speaketh against the Holy = Spirit,=20 it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the = world to=20 come" (Mt 12:32). It can naturally be concluded from these words that = the=20 remission of sins for those who have sinned not unto death can be given = both in=20 the present life and after death. Likewise from the word of God it is = known that=20 Christ has "the keys of hell and death" (Rev 1:18). Christ therefore has = the=20 power to open the gates of hell by the prayers of the Church and by the = powers=20 of the propitiatory Bloodless Sacrifice that the Church offers for the=20 departed.

All the ancient Liturgies of the Christian Church =97 = both East=20 and West =97 testify to the Church's remembrance in prayer of the dead. = This=20 remembrance is seen in the Liturgy of the Holy Apostle James, the = Brother of the=20 Lord, in the Liturgies of St. Basil the Great, St. John Chrysostom and = St.=20 Gregory the Dialogist. Similar references are to be found in the Roman, = Spanish=20 and Gallican Liturgies, as well as in the ancient Liturgies of the = Armenians,=20 Ethiopians, Syrians, Copts, Jacobites, and others. There is not a single = one of=20 these Liturgies where there is no prayer for the dead. The testimony of = the=20 Fathers and teachers of the Church speak of the same thing.

The Church intercedes for the dead in its prayers, = just as it=20 does for the living. This intercession is not done in its own name, but = in the=20 name of the Lord Jesus Christ (cf. Jn 14:13-14), and by the power of His = Sacrifice on the Cross, which was offered for the deliverance of all. = These=20 fervent prayers aid the seeds of the new life which departed Christians = have=20 taken with them. If these seeds have not been able to open up = sufficiently on=20 earth, they gradually open up and develop under the influence of prayers = and=20 with the mercy of God. Nothing can revive rotten seeds, though, and = prayers for=20 the dead who have died in impiety and without repentance, who have = quenched in=20 themselves the Spirit of Christ (1 Thes 5:19), are powerless. The = parable of the=20 rich man and Lazarus shows that there is no deliverance from hell for = these=20 people, that they cannot be transferred into the bosom of Abraham (Lk = 16:26).=20 Indeed, these people usually do not leave behind on earth people who = might=20 sincerely pray to God for them, and they have not acquired friends among = the=20 saints in Heaven, who, when they fail (that is, die), might receive them = into=20 everlasting habitations =97 that is, might pray for them (cf. Lk = 16:9).

On earth, it is not known to what lot each has been = subjected=20 after death, but prayers for the departed can never be profitless. If = the=20 departed ones have been vouchsafed to dwell in Heaven, they reply to our = prayers=20 for them with an answering prayer for us.

21. Summarize your understanding of the term=20 communion of saints.

Although not mentioned by the textbook in its brief = discussion=20 of this subject, Protestantism affirms the doctrine of the = communion of=20 saints when it recites the Apostles' Creed. (This Creed is recognized as = being=20 of authentic provenance by the Orthodox Church, but it is never used by = the=20 Orthodox liturgically). However, Protestantism goes on to deny = this=20 doctrine in actual fact. Given that inconsistency, and given the fact = that the=20 veneration of saints has waned in the Latin Church, the communion of = saints is=20 an important matter to examine.

Explaining the Protestant and Orthodox positions = regarding=20 prayers to the saints, Protopriest Victor Potapov writes that:

The Protestants do not recognize the veneration of = saints since=20 it, in their opinion, debases the worth of the Saviour as "the one = Mediator=20 between God and men" and contradicts those passages of Sacred Scripture = wherein=20 it says that one should worship God alone. The Protestants consider the=20 veneration of saints as useless, since the saints cannot hear our = prayers.

In the Orthodox teaching on the veneration of saints, = there is=20 no belittling of the Lord's redemptive sacrifice whatsoever, since we = ask of the=20 saints not that which is not within their power =97 the forgiveness of = sins, the=20 granting of grace and the future, blessed life =97 but we pray to the = saints as=20 members of the Church that have been redeemed by the immaculate blood of = Jesus=20 Christ and are more proximate to God than we, that they mediate for us = before=20 the one Mediator, the Lord Jesus Christ.

In the passages of Sacred Scripture cited by the = Protestants=20 (Deut 6:13, 1 Tim 1:17), the rendering of divine honor to God alone is = spoken=20 of; but we do not render such honor to the saints. We venerate God's = grace,=20 which resides in them; we venerate God, Who, according to the words of = the=20 Psalmist, is "wondrous in His saints."

As for the hearing of our prayers by the saints, for = this there=20 is no necessity to possess omniscience, which is really proper to God = alone. It=20 is sufficient to have the gift of clairvoyance, of which the Lord deemed = many of=20 His saints worthy while still on earth, and which they, one must = suppose,=20 possess to a higher degree in Heaven [Orthodoxy and = Heterodoxy].

Protestants have no prayerful communion with the = Heavenly=20 Church, with the Theotokos, the Holy Apostles, the saints, martyrs, = confessors,=20 the holy angels or archangels, and all the righteous. This practice was = present=20 in the ancient Church, yet Protestantism shuns prayer to the saints.

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky explains what the = ancient=20 Christian Church's understanding was of the veneration of saints, an=20 understanding that is retained in Orthodoxy Christianity to this day. A=20 paraphrase of Fr. Michael's explanation is given here.

There are certain Christians that the Church = glorifies and=20 lists in the Menologia. This glorification, which is an expression of = the=20 Church's conscience, takes place when the common conviction of the = sanctity of a=20 reposed person is confirmed by martyrdom, by fearless confession, by=20 self-sacrificing service to the Church, or by the gift of healing, = especially=20 when the Lord confirms the sanctity of the reposed person by miracles = after his=20 death when he is remembered in prayers. The Church cannot do otherwise = than=20 glorify those whom the Lord Himself calls His "friends." "Ye are My = friends... I=20 have called you friends" (Jn 15:14-15). These are people whom Christ has = received into His heavenly mansions, according to His promise that = "where I am,=20 there ye may be also" (Jn 14:3). When this glorification takes place, = prayers=20 for the forgiveness of sins and for that person's repose cease, and they = give=20 way to other forms of Church communion with him =97 sc., a) the praising = of his=20 ascetic struggles, since "neither do men light a candle and put it under = a=20 bushel, but on a candlestick; and it giveth light unto all that are in = the=20 house" (Mt 5:15); and b) petitions to that person that he might pray for = us, for=20 our forgiveness of sins and for our moral improvement, and that help = will be=20 given us in our spiritual needs and in our sorrows.

Holy Scripture states: "Blessed are the dead which = die in the=20 Lord from henceforth" (Rev 14:13), and we do indeed bless them. Again = Scripture=20 states: "And the glory which Thou gavest Me, I have given them" (Jn = 17:22), and=20 we do indeed give the saints this glory, according to Christ's = commandment.

Christ likewise states: "He that receiveth a prophet = in the=20 name of a prophet shall receive a prophet's reward; and he that = receiveth a=20 righteous man in the name of a righteous man shall receive a righteous = man's=20 reward" (Mt 10:41). "Whosoever shall do the will of My Father which is = in=20 Heaven, the same is My brother, and sister, and mother" (Mt 12:50). It = is=20 therefore fitting that we should receive a righteous man as a righteous = man. If=20 he is a brother or sister for the Lord, then he should be such for us = too. The=20 saints are our spiritual brothers and sisters, mothers and fathers, and = our love=20 for them is shown by communion with them in prayer.

St. John the Theologian wrote to the Christians: = "That which we=20 have seen and heard declare we unto you, that ye also may have = fellowship with=20 us: and truly our fellowship is with the Father, and with His Son Jesus = Christ"=20 (1 Jn 1:3). In the Church, this fellowship with the Apostles continues=20 uninterruptedly, going over with them into the other realm of their = existence,=20 the heavenly realm.

St. John also wrote of the nearness the saints have = to the=20 throne of the Lamb, and of their raising up prayers for the Church on = earth. He=20 states: "And I beheld, and I heard the voice of many angels round about = the=20 throne and the beasts and the elders: and the number of them was ten = thousand=20 times ten thousand, and thousands of thousands" who praised the Lord = (Rev=20 5:11).

The Apostle Paul writes that "ye are come unto Mount = Zion, and=20 unto the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, and to an = innumerable=20 company of angels, to the general assembly of the Church of the = firstborn, which=20 are written in Heaven, and to God the Judge of all, and to the spirits = of just=20 men made perfect" (Heb 12:22-23). Thus, communion in prayer with the = saints is=20 the realization in actual fact of the bond that exists between = Christians in the=20 Church Militant and those in the heavenly Church.

Sacred Scripture gives numerous examples that show = that the=20 righteous, while still living on earth, can perceive much that is = inaccessible=20 to the ordinary understanding. All the more are these gifts present with = the=20 righteous ones after they have put off the flesh and are in Heaven. The = Apostle=20 Peter saw into the heart of Ananias (Acts 5:3). Again, the lawless act = of the=20 servant Gehazi was revealed to Elisha (4 Kings, ch. 4, 2 Kings in KJV). = Even=20 more remarkably, to him was revealed all the secret intentions of the = Syrian=20 court, which he in turn communicated to the king of Israel (4 Kings = 6:12). Even=20 while still on earth, the saints penetrated in spirit into the heavenly = world.=20 To some were shown choirs of angels, while others (Isaiah, Ezekiel) were = allowed=20 to behold the image of God. Others still were exalted to the third = Heaven, where=20 they heard mystical, unutterable words (the Apostle Paul). All the more = are=20 these saints, when they are in Heaven, able to know what is happening on = earth=20 and of hearing those who pray to them, for the saints in Heaven "are = equal unto=20 the angels" (Lk 20:36).

The parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:19-31) = shows=20 that Abraham, in Heaven, could hear the cry of the rich man from hell, = even=20 though a "great gulf" separated them. Abraham's remark that "they have = Moses and=20 the prophets; let them hear them" (Lk 16:29) clearly indicates that = Abraham=20 knows the life of the Hebrew people after his death. He knows of Moses = and the=20 Law, and knows of the prophets and their writings. Thus the spiritual = vision of=20 the saints in Heaven is greater than the vision they had on earth. The = Apostle=20 Paul confirms this fact in his words that: "Now we see through a glass, = darkly,=20 but then face to face; now I know in part, but then I shall know even as = also I=20 am known" (1 Cor 13:12).

Since the earliest times, the Orthodox Church has = held the=20 teaching of the invocation of saints, knowing that they intercede for us = before=20 God in Heaven. This is shown in the ancient Liturgies. For example, in = the=20 Liturgy of the Holy Apostle James, it is said:

Especially we perform the memorial of the Holy and = Glorious=20 Ever-Virgin, the Blessed Theotokos. Remember her, O Lord God, and by her = pure=20 and holy prayers spare and have mercy on us.

In explaining the Liturgy of the Church of Jerusalem, = St. Cyril=20 of Jerusalem remarks: "Then we also commemorate [in offering the = Bloodless=20 Sacrifice] those who have previously departed: first of all, patriarchs, = prophets, Apostles, martyrs, so that by their prayers and intercession = God might=20 receive our petition."

The Holy Fathers and teachers of the Church, = especially from=20 the fourth century on, give numerous testimonies about the Church's = veneration=20 of the saints. However, even from the beginning of the second century, = there are=20 direct indications in ancient Christian literature with regard to faith = in the=20 prayer of the saints in Heaven for Christians on earth. The witnesses of = the=20 martyrdom of St. Ignatius the God-Bearer (beginning of the second = century), for=20 example, state:

Having returned home with tears, we had the all-night = vigil....=20 Then, after sleeping a little, some of us suddenly saw blessed Ignatius = standing=20 and embracing us, and others likewise saw him praying for us.

These and other accounts as well that mention the = martyrs'=20 prayers and intercession for us, are to be found in the martyrologies = from the=20 epoch of persecution against Christians.

22. Summarize the importance of the Name = Day.

A Name Day is the festival of one's patron saint = whose name one=20 is given at Baptism. The saints are holy people who pleased God by a = righteous=20 life while they were on earth, and they are an important part of our = family =97 a=20 worldwide Christian family of people from all nationalities, stations in = life=20 and positions. Therefore, Orthodox Christians honor all the saints, but = they=20 also have a special devotion to their patron saint. For this reason, = they=20 consider their Name Day far more important than their birthday.

The celebration of the Name Day demonstrates the = reverence=20 Orthodox Christians have for the saints. In their understanding of the = communion=20 of saints, Orthodox do not look upon God's favored ones as being remote = and=20 obscure figures from another era, but they see them as being their=20 contemporaries and friends, and as intercessors before the throne of = God.

In addition to what was explained in the previous = answer=20 concerning Orthodoxy's veneration of the saints, Archimandrite = Panteleimon of=20 Jordanville gives the following helpful explanation:

How can we not appeal in prayer to the saintly = righteous, who=20 have already entered the heavenly mansions, when we know that even while = living=20 on earth they had the power to intercede before God for sinful people! = God=20 Himself commanded a king to entreat the righteous Abraham to pray for = him,=20 saying: For he is a prophet, and shall pray for thee, and thou shalt = live=20 (Gen 20:7). The Lord commanded the friends of the long-suffering Job, = who had=20 offended him, to ask his prayers: Go to My servant Job, and he shall = pray for=20 you, for him will I accept, lest I deal with you after your folly = (Job=20 42:8). Because of the prayers of the righteous, the Lord often spared = people who=20 had sinned. Moses prayed for the Hebrew people who had fallen into the = sin of=20 idol-worship and were already doomed to destruction by God; the Lord = accepted=20 the prayer of the holy man and pardoned the stiff-necked people (Exodus=20 32:9-12). The Lord once said to the prophet Jeremiah: Though Moses = and Samuel=20 stood before Me, yet My mind could not be toward this people [the = Hebrews]....=20 Who shall have pity on thee, 0 Jerusalem, or who shall bemoan thee? = (Jer=20 15:1-5). This means that Moses and Samuel, though already departed by = the time=20 of Jeremiah, can intercede for sinful people. Judas Maccabeus saw a = vision of=20 the departed high priest, Onias, who was "praying for all the Hebrew = people,"=20 and, pointing to another man who was with him, said to Judas: This is = Jeremiah, the prophet of God, who prays much for the people, and for the = holy=20 city (2 Mac 15:12,14). And the Holy Apostle Peter clearly promised = his=20 disciples that after his death he would remember them: Moreover, I = will=20 endeavor that ye may be able after my decease to have these things = always in=20 remembrance (2 Peter 1:15).

In the Book of Revelation, the visions of St. John = the=20 Theologian demonstrate the saints do pray for us, and their prayers, = like smoke=20 from a censer, rise before God, and He receives them with favor. Thus, = the Word=20 of God clearly teaches us to call upon the saints in our prayers, and = affirms=20 that they send up their prayers to God for us; and that He, the most = gracious,=20 receives their intercessions [A Ray of Light: Instructions in Piety = and the=20 State of the World at the End of Time, pp. 12-13].

While Protestants divide and separate people into the = living=20 and dead, Orthodox Christianity knows no such divisions, nor do such = divisions=20 exist with God. "With Him [God], all are alive" (Lk 20: 38). There is = also a=20 tight bond of unity between all the members of the Church: all are tied = together=20 by a common concern and love for one another. Therefore, all the members = of the=20 Church, both the living and the dead, pray for one another.

The saints hear our prayers and are always prepared = to pray for=20 us since we are all members of the one and same Body of Christ, the = Church.=20 Members of a body help each other, and both commiserate and rejoice = together. As=20 the Apostle Paul teaches: "And whether one member suffer, all the = members suffer=20 with it; or one member be honored, all the members rejoice with it. Now = ye are=20 the Body of Christ, and members in particular" (1 Cor 12:26-27). = Therefore, the=20 saints rejoice with us or they commiserate with us in our misfortune. It = would=20 not be commiseration if they did not come to help us.

The saints once lived on earth and suffered the same=20 afflictions that we know here. They know from personal experience how = difficult=20 it is for people to struggle with worldly calamities and grief, and they = know=20 how necessary heavenly assistance is in the battle here on earth. = Although the=20 saints reside in Heaven now, they always remember their homeland and are = interested in the salvation of the world. The saints are always ready to = intercede before God on our behalf. They love us spiritually, for they = descend=20 from the same ancestors as us and are related to us. They are our = brothers and=20 sisters in the faith. They are also aware of our condition because they = love God=20 and are in communion with Him. By the grace of God, and because of their = union=20 with Him, they hear the prayers from the members of the Church Militant, = and=20 they receive those prayers and come to our aid with the compassionate = and=20 heartfelt lifting up of those prayers to the one Intercessor and = Intermediary,=20 Christ. If we, sinners that we are, can assist our neighbors, all the = more can=20 the holy ones in Heaven do so for us, for they are not disinterested = observers=20 of our troubles. They have a more complete and pure love than ours, and = they can=20 and do pray and intercede for us before God. Moreover, God listens to = their=20 prayers for us, for through their exploits while they lived on earth, = the saints=20 earned for themselves God's eternal good will. They are God's favorite = ones who=20 have gained ready access to Him. As the Word of God says concerning the=20 effectiveness of the saints' prayers for us, "The effectual fervent = prayer of a=20 righteous man availeth much" (James 5:15).

Regarding those who scoff at the idea of prayer, = Metropolitan=20 Gregory of St. Petersburg stated:

There are people (who are unworthy, however, of the = name) who,=20 not being able to understand how the Lord can hear and answer our = prayers, do=20 not fully believe that He does hear and answer them. Do not pay = attention to=20 them. We do not understand how we live, but we certainly do live.

The same may be said about prayers to the saints. The = saints do=20 hear and answer our prayers.

Because of the prayerful intercession of the saints, = the Church=20 ends its every service with this appeal to Jesus Christ, that He save = and have=20 mercy on us, "through the prayers of His Most Pure Mother and all the = saints."=20 Also because of the saints' loving intercession for us, Orthodox = Christians=20 always turn to the saints in prayer, and they give special honor to = their patron=20 saint on their Name Day. To revere God's righteous servants in this way = is=20 entirely proper. Christ regarded as His friends all those who fulfilled = His=20 commandments, and He said to His disciples: "He that receiveth you = receiveth Me,=20 and he that receiveth Me receiveth Him that sent Me" (Mt 10: 40). In = these=20 words, Christ is clearly showing that the honor rendered to His faithful = servants and friends is imparted to Himself. Thus, in honoring the = saints,=20 Christians honor God Himself, Whom the saints pleased in their lives = here on=20 earth, and Whose grace resides in them.

23. Summarize the reasons for the veneration = of the=20 Theotokos.

Holy Scripture shows that it is most proper to = venerate=20 the Most Pure Mother of God. The Archangel Gabriel venerated her, = saying,=20 "Rejoice, thou that are highly favored, the Lord is with thee blessed = art thou=20 among women" (Lk 1:28). St. John the Forerunner, as a babe in his = mother's=20 womb, leaped at the mere sound of the voice of the Theotokos (Lk=20 1:41,44). St. Elizabeth also venerated Mary, saying, "Blessed art = thou=20 among women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb: and whence is this to = me,=20 that the mother of my Lord should come to Me?" (Lk 1:42-43). Likewise = did the=20 followers of Christ venerate Mary. One of them, after hearing = Christ's=20 words, said to Him, "Blessed is the womb that bare Thee, and the paps = which Thou=20 hast sucked" (Lk 11:27).

Elder Epiphanies Theodoropoulos (+1989) gives further = reasons=20 for the veneration of the Theotokos. To the above quoted words of St. = Elizabeth,=20 the Mother of God replied that from henceforth, all generations would = call her=20 blessed (Lk 1:48). Who was the Theotokos, then? Fr. Epiphanios = answers:

An unknown girl of Nazareth. Who knew her? Despite = this, from=20 then on, empires have been forgotten, bright names of women have = vanished, wives=20 and mothers of generals have been forgotten. Who knows or remembers the = mothers=20 of Napoleon... or the mother of Alexander the Great? Almost no one. = However,=20 millions of lips in all the lengths and widths of the earth, and in all = the=20 centuries, hymn the humble daughter of Nazareth, "more honorable than = the=20 Cherubim and more glorious beyond compare than the Seraphim. " Are we or = are we=20 not, the people of [modern times], living the verification of this = prophetical=20 saying of the Panagia? [Counsels for Life, pp. 196-97].

The Mother of God, the daughter of the aged Joachim = and Anna,=20 and a descendant of the royal line of David, is a real person who walked = this=20 earth. To understand who she is, one need only to look to the Sacred = Scriptures=20 and Sacred Tradition of the Holy Orthodox Church, which have remained = unchanged=20 since Apostolic times.

The Theotokos was chosen from among all generations = to become a=20 bridge so that salvation could come into the world. Her selection to be = the=20 Mother of God took five and a half millennia after the fall of Adam and = Eve=20 before there arose a woman who was so completely "holy both in body and = spirit"=20 (1 Cor 7:34) that, through the creative action of God's Holy Spirit, God = fashioned from her all-pure blood the flesh that was taken by Jesus, the = Son and=20 Word of God. Through a life of holiness, Mary became a pure vessel to = contain=20 the Uncircumscribable One, giving birth to Him, raising Him, and = protecting Him=20 in His youth.

The Holy Fathers have always taught that "God became = man so=20 that man might become divine," that is, that people might share God's = nature (2=20 Peter 1:4). However, God did not wish to become incarnate without Mary's = consent, for He always respects human freedom. Mary's response was = completely=20 voluntary. There was the chance for her to say no. However, her faith = and=20 obedient submission to God's will that she become an active participant = in the=20 Mystery of the Incarnation counterbalanced Eve's unbelief and = disobedience in=20 Paradise. Mary loosened the knot which Eve had bound, and Mary is = therefore=20 referred to as the New Eve, which means that she is the Mother of the = new human=20 race which is to share in the life of God. Had it not been for Mary's=20 cooperation, there would have been no Incarnation, and consequently no=20 redemption. Through Eve came sin; through the Virgin, salvation. The = Theotokos,=20 the Holy Church teaches, is the supreme example of synergy (cooperation) = between=20 God's purpose and the will of man. The Mother of God is, as the = Archangel=20 Gabriel called her, "full of grace."

St. John of Shanghai and San Francisco writes that = the Jewish=20 slanderers of the Mother of Jesus soon became convinced that it was = almost=20 impossible to dishonor her. On the basis of the information which they=20 themselves possessed, it was much easier to prove her praiseworthy life. = Therefore, abandoning their slander, which as Origen writes had already = been=20 taken up by the pagans (cf. Against Celsus I), they strove to = prove at=20 least that Mary had not been a virgin when she gave birth to Christ. = They even=20 maintained that the prophecies concerning the birth-giving of the = Messiah by a=20 virgin had never existed, and that it was therefore entirely in vain = that the=20 Christians thought to exalt Jesus by the fact that a prophecy was = supposedly=20 being fulfilled in Him.

Jewish translators were found (Aquila, Symmachus, = Theodotion)=20 who made new translations of the Old Testament into Greek. In these, the = well-known prophecy of Isaiah 7:14, Behold, a virgin shall = conceive, was=20 altered. In place of the word virgin, the translators substituted = a=20 young woman. Through this altered text, the translators hoped to = make=20 people believe that Christians thought to ascribe to Mary something = completely=20 impossible =97 a birth-giving without a man, while actually the birth of = Christ=20 was not in the least different from other human births. However, the = evil intent=20 of the translators was clearly revealed. Indeed, not only the Jews, but = even the=20 pagans, on the basis of their own translations and various prophecies, = expected=20 the Redeemer to be born of a virgin.

The Gospels clearly state that Christ had been born = of a=20 virgin, and from antiquity the Christian Church has always confessed = Christ=20 "incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary." This truth was = denied,=20 though, not only by the Jews, but also by those who denied the Gospel, = and by=20 those who did not wish to humble themselves and lead a pure life. For = the=20 latter, the birth of God from the Ever-Virgin proved a stumbling block, = and=20 Mary's pure life was a reproach to them. Therefore, in order to present=20 themselves as Christians, they began a new attack against the Mother of = God.=20 They did not deny that Christ was born of a virgin, but they began to = maintain=20 that Mary was a virgin only "until she brought forth her firstborn Son, = Jesus"=20 (Mt 1:25).

In the fourth century, the false teacher Helvidius = (and=20 likewise many others before and after him) held that after Christ's = birth, Mary=20 entered into conjugal life with St. Joseph the Betrothed and had from = him=20 children, who are called Christ's brothers and sisters in the = Gospels.

In the fifth century, St. Jerome pointed out that the = term=20 brethren of the Lord does not necessarily infer the first degree = of=20 consanguinity. As the Semitic language lacked a word for cousin, = the word=20 achim (brethren) was used, and it had a very wide meaning, from = that of=20 siblings to cousins, and also stretching to members of the same tribe. = Thus=20 Genesis 14:14 states that Lot was Abraham's brother, when he was = actually=20 Abraham's nephew. Likewise, Genesis 29:15 describes Jacob as the = brother=20 of his uncle Laban. In many other places, the term brethren could = be used=20 to describe people not related either by blood or tribe (vide Jer 34:9, = Deut=20 23:7 and Esd 5:7).

Of further note, in no place in the New Testament are = any of=20 the "brethren" explicitly referred to as Mary's son or sons =97 a = systematic=20 omission that additionally shows that Jesus was indeed her only son. = Jesus is=20 always referred to as "the son of Mary," not "a son of Mary."

Moreover, as St. John of Shanghai and San Francisco = goes on to=20 explain, the word until and words similar to it often signify = eternity.=20 In Sacred Scripture, it is said of Christ: "In His days shall shine = forth=20 righteousness and an abundance of peace, until the moon be taken = away"=20 (Ps 71:1). This passage does not mean that when there shall no longer be = a moon=20 at the end of the world, God's righteousness shall no longer be; rather = it means=20 that precisely than it will triumph.

Sacred Scripture likewise states: "For He must reign=20 until He hath put all enemies under His feet" (1 Cor 15:25). This = passage=20 does not mean that Christ is to reign only until the time His enemies = are put=20 under His feet, for He will reign forever.

Again, King David writes: "As the eyes of the = handmaid look=20 unto the hands of her mistress, so do our eyes look unto the Lord our = God,=20 until He takes pity on us" (Ps 122:2). David will have his eyes = toward=20 the Lord until he obtains mercy, but having obtained it, he will not = direct them=20 to the earth.

Still another example is Christ's remark to the = Apostles that:=20 "Lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of the world" (Mt = 28:20). It=20 cannot be supposed that after the end of the world, when the Apostles = judge the=20 twelve tribes of Israel, that they will not have the promised communion = with the=20 Lord.

Moreover, it is not correct to maintain that the = brothers and=20 sisters of Christ were the children of His Most Pure Mother. As the same = St.=20 John points out, the names of brother and sister have = several=20 distinct meanings. These designations signify a certain kinship between = people=20 or their spiritual closeness, and they are sometimes used in a = broader=20 or narrower sense. St. John notes that in any case, people = are called=20 brothers or sisters if they have a common father and mother, or only a = common=20 father or mother; or even if they have different fathers and mothers, if = their=20 parents (having become widowed) have entered into marriage (stepbrothers = and=20 stepsisters); or if their parents are bound by close degrees of = kinship.

St. John notes that nowhere in the Gospels can it be = seen that=20 those who are called the brothers of Jesus were or were considered the = children=20 of His Mother. On the contrary, it was known that Jesus and others were = the sons=20 of Joseph, the betrothed of Mary, who was a widower with children from = his first=20 wife (cf. St. Epiphanius of Cyprus, Panarion, 78). Also, the = sister of=20 the Theotokos, Mary the wife of Cleopas, who stood with her during the=20 Crucifixion (Jn 19: 25) had children. These children, in view of such = close=20 kinship, with full right could also be called brothers of the Lord.

That Christ's so-called brothers and sisters were not = the=20 children of the Theotokos is clearly evident in the fact that Christ = entrusted=20 His Mother before His death to His disciple John. Christ would not have = given=20 her to John's care if Mary had other children other than Himself. The = other=20 children would have taken care of her themselves. Also, as St. John of = Shanghai=20 and San Francisco points out, the sons of Joseph, the supposed father of = Jesus,=20 did not consider themselves obliged to take care of someone they = regarded as=20 their stepmother, or at least they did not have such love for her as = blood=20 children have for their parents, and such as the adopted John had for = her.

Aping the ancient heretics who blasphemed the Mother = of God,=20 the entire Protestant world is unable to abandon its blasphemous and = mocking=20 teaching on the Mother of God. Even to this day, Protestantism refuses = to call=20 the all-holy Virgin anything but Mary. Also, twisting all things in = Scripture=20 that are hard to understand (cf. 2 Peter 3:16), Protestantism brought = back to=20 life the false teaching that Mary lived with Joseph as a wife with her = husband,=20 and that he fathered children by her. However, St. John's examination of = Scriptures given above reveals with complete clarity the = insubstantiality of the=20 objections to the ever-virginity of the Mother of God. Also, the = flippant=20 irreverence of those who attack her virginity is completely nullified = by=20 Scripture, which states: "This gate shall be shut, it shall not = be=20 opened, and no man shall enter in by it; because the Lord, the God of = Israel,=20 hath entered in by it, therefore it shall be shut" (Ezekiel 44:2). = The Holy=20 Fathers regarded these lines as a prophecy of the birth of God from a = virgin,=20 and also of the ever-virginity of Mary, and the liturgical poetry of = Orthodoxy=20 often refers to "the closed gateway of the Virgin." Moreover, as = Protopresbyter=20 Michael Pomazansky points out, the birth of Jesus Christ from a virgin = is=20 testified to directly and deliberately by two Evangelists, Matthew = and=20 Luke. This dogma entered into the Church's Creed, Fr. Michael = explains, in=20 these words: "Who for the sake of us men and for our salvation came down = from=20 Heaven and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary and = became man."=20 The dogma of the Virgin Birth teaches that the Theotokos was a virgin=20 before Childbirth, during Childbirth, and after=20 Childbirth.

The life of the Theotokos is preserved in the = Church's Sacred=20 Apostolic Tradition. During her earthly life, she avoided the glory that = was=20 hers as the Mother of God, but preferred instead to live in quiet and to = prepare=20 for her departure into eternal life. She always gook pains to the end of = her=20 earthly days to prove worthy of the Kingdom of her Son.

The friends of Christ, the Apostles, manifested great = concern=20 and devotion for the Virgin Mary, especially John the Theologian. After = Christ=20 uttered to him from the Cross, "Behold thy mother," John took her to = himself and=20 cared for her as a mother.

After Mary's repose, the Apostles (save Thomas) gave = her most=20 pure body over to burial. On the third day, when the Apostle Thomas = arrived in=20 Jerusalem, all of them went to the tomb, only to find it empty. Mary = later=20 appeared to them that evening during their meal, telling them that = Christ had=20 glorified her body also and that she, resurrected, stood before His = throne. She=20 then promised to be with the forever. Of this encounter, St. John of = Shanghai=20 and San Francisco writes:

The Apostles greeted the Mother of God with great joy = and began=20 to venerate her not only as the Mother of their beloved Teacher and = Lord, but=20 also as their heavenly helper, as a protector of Christians and = intercessor for=20 the whole human race before the righteous Judge. And everywhere the = Gospel of=20 Christ was preached, His Most Pure Mother also began to be glorified = [The=20 Orthodox Veneration of Mary, the Birthgiver of God, p. 23].

The God-pleasing Saint John continues:

If God the Father chose her, God the Holy Spirit = descended upon=20 her, and God the Son dwelt in her, submitted to her in the days of His = youth,=20 was concerned for her when hanging on the Cross =97 then should not = everyone who=20 confesses the Holy Trinity venerate her? [Ibid., p. 21].

Mary is the Mother of our God and the most exalted = among all=20 God's creatures. In the titles assigned to her by two Ecumenical = Councils, she=20 is the Theotokos (Birthgiver of God) and Aeiparthenos=20 (Ever-Virgin). She is also popularly referred to as Panagia = (All-Holy),=20 and in the hymn Meet It Is sung at the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, = she is=20 called "more honorable than the Cherubim and incomparably more glorious = than the=20 Seraphim."

It is indeed proper for people to follow the example = of the=20 Most Pure Mother of God and venerate her. Many times each year, Orthodox = Christians all over the world gather in churches adorned with icons of = their=20 heavenly Intercessor to praise her who was glorified with special honor = in=20 Heaven and on earth, and to thank her for the benefactions she has = shown, and to=20 beg mercy. They also venerate her in every series of hymns in the = services, each=20 of which ends with a hymn or verse (the Theotokion) that honors her.

24. Explain the term = Theotokos.

As noted earlier, Theotokos is Greek for = Birthgiver of=20 God. The Fathers of the Council of Ephesus (Third Ecumenical Council) = wanted to=20 maintain this title, for it protects a correct understanding of Christ's = Person.=20 Mary is venerated in the first place precisely because of Christ. The = title=20 Theotokos insures that Mary is not glorified as an end in herself, or = apart from=20 Christ, but only in her relation to Him. The veneration of the Mother of = God can=20 never detract from the worship of God. In fact, just the opposite is = true: the=20 more we call "the very Theotokos" to remembrance and venerate her, the = more we=20 "commit ourselves and one another and all our life unto Christ our = God."

25. Give some differences between the Orthodox = veneration of=20 the Theotokos and the non-Orthodox attitude toward her.

The West, cut loose from its Orthodox moorings for = one thousand=20 years, has forgotten the biblico-patristic teaching of theosis = (divinization by=20 grace). Thus the Latino-Protestant tradition can comprehend only two = equally=20 distorted attitudes that developed toward the Mother of God after the = West=20 severed itself from Christ's Church in 1054. One view is held by the = Reformed=20 Churches, while the other is maintained by the Roman Catholic = Church.

The Protestant Reformers rejected the distorted view = of Mary=20 that developed after Rome left the Apostolic Church in the eleventh = century, a=20 view that ultimately resulted in the false teaching of the Immaculate=20 Conception. Protestantism not only rejected the incorrect Western view = of Mary,=20 but it went on to ignore her completely, thus denying her role in the=20 Incarnation and the part she plays in people's salvation. In spite of = the Gospel=20 words "all generations shall call me blessed" (Lk 1:48), Protestantism, = which=20 claims to be based "on the Bible," denies all veneration of the Mother = of God,=20 and denies calling on her in prayer.

In addition, as the writer Peter Jackson points out,=20 Protestantism is always quick to identify the veneration of Mary with = the=20 worship of pagan goddesses, although for the sake of consistency, he = also notes,=20 they would also have to associate the worship of Christ with His pagan=20 counterfeits. If Christians can discern between the true Christ and the = false,=20 then we should be able to distinguish between the Theotokos and ancient = pagan=20 goddesses, Mr. Jackson concludes.

Western Christendom's second incorrect view of the = Mother of=20 God is one invented by the Roman Catholics: a super-human creature, one = without=20 a fallen nature, a goddess and a fourth person of the Holy Trinity. = While Latin=20 commentators say that Mary was saved by Christ, they understand this = fact in the=20 distorted sense that she was preserved without taint of original sin in = the=20 future merits of Christ (as defined in the Bull of the Dogma of the = Immaculate=20 Conception). In the Latin teaching, Mary received in advance the gift = which=20 Christ brought to mankind by His suffering and death on the Cross. Also, = with=20 regard to those torments that Mary endured at the foot of the Cross of = her Son,=20 and in those sorrows which filled her life, Roman Catholicism consider = these an=20 addition to the suffering of Christ. Latin theologians therefore see = Mary as an=20 associate with Christ the Redeemer as a Co-Redemptress. As the = Catechism=20 of Dr. Weimar states: "In the act of redemption, she [Mary], in a = certain way,=20 helped Christ." Or, in the words of the Catholic Bishop Malou of = Broughes: "In=20 three respects =97 as Daughter, as Mother, and as Spouse of God, the = Holy Virgin=20 is exalted to a certain equality with the Father, to a certain=20 superiority to her Son, and to a certain nearness to the Holy = Spirit."=20 Thus, in the teachings of the representatives of Latin theology, Mary is = placed=20 side by side with Christ Himself in the matter of redemption, and = she is=20 exalted to an equality with God. Although the Latin Church has = not yet=20 proclaimed such teachings to be dogma, it is presently on the path to a = complete=20 deification of the Mother of God. At present, Roman Catholic authorities = call=20 Mary a complement to the Holy Trinity.

Orthodoxy highly exalts the Mother of God, but it = does not dare=20 to ascribe any qualities that have not been communicated about her in = Sacred=20 Scripture or Sacred Apostolic Tradition. Thus Orthodoxy venerates = the=20 Mother of God in the sense of honoring her, but it does not give = her the=20 worship which is given to God alone. Greek theology is very clear on = this point.=20 The Greek language distinguishes between latreia, which is the = worship of=20 God, and duleia, hyperdu-leia, and proskynesis, which = describe the=20 veneration of the Virgin.

Orthodoxy rejects the Roman Catholic Church's false = doctrine=20 that Mary is "a creature, but also no longer a creature," that she is a=20 Co-Redemptress, that she is a complement and a fourth person of the Holy = Trinity, and that she is equal to God. All of Rome's teachings in this = regard=20 strive to glorify Mary more than God has glorified her, and all are the = fruit of=20 vain, false wisdom which is not satisfied with what the Church has held = since=20 the time of the Apostles. In Rome's false teachings about Mary are the = words of=20 St. Epiphanius of Cyprus (fourth century) fulfilled: "Certain senseless = ones in=20 their opinion about the Holy Ever-Virgin have striven and are striving = to put=20 her in place of God." [Against the Antidikomarionites].

Orthodoxy and Rome part company again over the matter = of the=20 Latin Church's dogma of the Immaculate Conception, for the doctrine is = an=20 extension of the West's incorrect understanding of the ancestral sin = (what the=20 West calls original sin), and it is based upon the false = assumption that=20 Christ might have been tainted by ancestral sin. Orthodoxy likewise = rejects=20 Rome's dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin insofar as it implies that = Mary did=20 not undergo a bodily death.

26. Give your understanding of the heresy of = the=20 Immaculate Conception.

The Western extremes consider the Mother of God = either born=20 perfect (Roman Catholicism), or else never having become perfect at all=20 (Protestantism). Concerning the former view, it is defined in the = completely=20 blasphemous teaching of the Immaculate Conception, a corruption = invented=20 by the Roman Catholic Church and subsequently proclaimed a dogma of that = Church=20 in 1854. Like all heresies, the false doctrine of the Immaculate = Conception is=20 satanic in nature.

The new teaching of the Immaculate Conception stems = from=20 Augustine of Hippo's incorrect opinion of the ancestral sin, and it was = Rome's=20 attempt to cover up Augustine's incorrect view with yet another false = teaching.=20 Augustine taught that the guilt of Adam and Eve's sin was transmitted = through=20 the human race either through the conjugal act or through actual = childbirth.=20 This idea engendered a fear among the Latins that since Christ was born = of a=20 woman, He might be infected with the ancestral sin. Rather than backing = up,=20 rethinking the matter, and eradicating the first falsehood, Rome chose = instead=20 to cover it up and try to protect the Virgin from all traces of = ancestral sin.=20 As the Greek writer Photios Kontoglu described the matter, "The doctrine = of the=20 Immaculate Conception is a poor solution to a non-existent problem."

St. John, Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco, = gives a=20 detailed history of the Immaculate Conception. He writes that after = those who=20 censured the most pure life of the Mother of God had been rebuked, as = well as=20 those who denied her ever-virginity, those who denied her dignity as the = Mother=20 of God, and those who disdained her icons, there appeared another = teaching which=20 seemed to exalt Mary, but which in fact denied all her virtues. = This new=20 teaching was raised by the devil, who could not imagine himself = defeated, and=20 who could not remain an indifferent spectator to the glory of the Mother = of God.=20 This new false teaching was that of the Immaculate Conception, and = through it,=20 the devil continued to wage war against the truth through men who do his = will.

The teaching of the Immaculate Conception is that = "the=20 All-Blessed Virgin Mary in the first instant of her conception, by the = special=20 grace of Almighty God and by a special privilege, for the sake of the = future=20 merits of Jesus Christ, Saviour of the human race, was preserved exempt = from all=20 stain of original sin" (from the Bull of Pope Pius IX concerning the new = dogma).=20 In other words, at her conception, the Mother of God was preserved from = original=20 sin and, by God's grace, was placed in a state wherein it was = impossible=20 for her to have personal sin.

Christians had never heard of such a teaching prior = to the=20 ninth century, when for the first time one Paschasius Radbertus, Abbot = of=20 Corvey, expressed the opinion that the Holy Virgin was conceived without = original sin. Starting in the twelfth century, this idea began to spread = among=20 the clergy and laity in the Latin Church, which by then had already cut = itself=20 off from the Universal Church founded by Christ, thus losing the grace = and=20 guidance of the Holy Spirit.

The same St. John explains that there was a = tremendous=20 difference of opinion among the most renowned theologians of the West, = the=20 pillars (so to speak) of the Latin Church. By no means did all of them = agree=20 with the new teaching. Bernard of Clairvaux and Thomas Aquinas = decisively=20 rejected it, while Duns Scotus defended it. From the teachers, this = division=20 carried over to their disciples. The Dominican monks, following Thomas = Aquinas,=20 censured the teaching of the Immaculate Conception, while the = Franciscans,=20 followers of Duns Scotus, strove to promote it. The battle between these = two=20 currents continued on for the course of several centuries, and on both = sides=20 were those who the Roman Catholics regarded as the greatest = authorities.

No help came to the resolution of the matter by the = fact that=20 several people declared they had divine revelations concerning it. The = renowned=20 fourteenth-century Swedish nun Bridget spoke in her writings about = appearances=20 to her of the Mother of God, wherein Mary told her she had been = conceived=20 immaculately, without original sin. A contemporary of Bridget's, = however, the=20 yet more renowned ascetic Catherine of Sienna, affirmed that the Mother = of God=20 did in fact participate in original sin at her conception, concerning = which she=20 had received a revelation by Christ Himself, she stated.

Thus, neither by theological writings, nor by the = various=20 contradictory "miraculous" manifestations, could Roman Catholics = distinguish=20 where the truth was. Up until the end of the fifteenth century, popes = remained=20 apart from these disputes. Only then, in 1475, Pope Sixtus IV approved a = service=20 in which the teaching of the Immaculate Conception was clearly = expressed.=20 Several years later, he forbade condemnation of those who believed in = the=20 Immaculate Conception. The same pope, however, also declined to affirm = that the=20 Immaculate Conception was the unwavering teaching of the Latin Church, = and as a=20 result, he did not condemn those who did not accept the idea.

Thinking that it seemed pious and pleasing to the = Mother of God=20 to give her as much glory as possible, Roman Catholics came to give the = teaching=20 of the Immaculate Conception more and more support. Their striving to = glorify=20 the Mother of God on the one hand, and on the other hand, the deviation = of the=20 Latin theologians into abstract speculations that led only to seeming = truth=20 (Scholasticism), and finally, the patronage of the popes after Sixtus IV = =97 all=20 of these things led to the fact that the opinion expressed by Paschasius = Radbertus was already the belief of the Latin Church. It remained only = to have=20 the doctrine proclaimed as the teaching of that Church. Such was one in = 1854,=20 when Pius IX declared the Immaculate Conception to be a dogma of the = Roman=20 Catholic Church.

In that action, Rome added still another = deviation from=20 the teaching which it itself had once proclaimed prior to 1054, = when it=20 still adhered to the ancient Apostolic faith handed down by Christ, = which faith=20 has been held up to now unaltered and unchanged by the Orthodox Church. = The=20 proclamation of the new dogma satisfied first the broad masses of = Catholics who=20 in simplicity of heart thought the teaching served for the greater glory = of the=20 Mother of God, to whom they felt they were making a gift with this = teaching. The=20 dogma again satisfied the vainglory of the Latin theologians who = defended it and=20 worked it out. Most of all, though the dogma was profitable to the papal = throne=20 itself since, having proclaimed the new dogma by his own authority, even = though=20 he did listen to the opinions of the Latin bishops, the pope by this = very act=20 openly appropriated to himself the right to change the teaching of the = Roman=20 Church. The pope thereby placed his own voice above the testimony of = Sacred=20 Scripture and Sacred Tradition. A direct deduction of this act was that = the=20 Roman popes were infallible in matters of faith =97 and indeed, the very = same Pius=20 IX, who called himself "the way, the truth, and the life," proclaimed = papal=20 infallibility a dogma of the Latin Church in 1870.

In the definition of the new dogma of the Immaculate=20 Conception, the Latin Church stated that it was not establishing a new = teaching,=20 but that it was only proclaiming something which had always existed in = the=20 Church, and which had been held by the Holy Fathers. Excerpts were then = given=20 from these Fathers, although the teachings contained in them do not = show=20 what the Latin Church states they show; they show instead only the = exalted=20 sanctity of the Mother of God. In none of the excerpts is there = any word=20 about the immaculateness of Mary's conception. Also not shown in = these=20 excerpts are the writings of those very same Fathers who in other = places=20 proclaim that only Jesus Christ is completely pure of every sin, = while=20 all men, being born of Adam, have a flesh subject to the law of sin.

Contrary to what the Latin Church states, none of the = ancient=20 Fathers state that God miraculously purified the Virgin Mary when she = was in her=20 mother's womb. What these Fathers do indicate, however, is that the = Mother of=20 God, just as all human beings, endured a battle with sinfulness. In her = own=20 battle with temptations, these Fathers state, Mary was victorious and = was saved=20 by her divine Son.

St. John of Shanghai and San Francisco goes on to = list five=20 major points which demonstrate the falsehood of the Immaculate=20 Conception. These points are as follows:

(1) The teaching of the complete sinlessness of the = Virgin Mary=20 is contrary to Sacred Scriptures, which repeatedly mention the=20 sinlessness of the "one Mediator between God and man, Jesus Christ" (1 = Tim 2:5);=20 "and in Him is no sin" (1 Jn 3:5); "Who did no sin, neither was guile = found in=20 His mouth" (1 Peter 2:22); "One that hath been in all points tempted = like we=20 are, yet without sin" (Heb 4:15); "He hath made Him to be sin for us, = Who knew=20 no sin" (2 Cor 5:21). Concerning the rest of mankind, however, = Scriptures state,=20 "Who is pure of defilement? No one who has lived a single day of his = life on=20 earth" (Job 14:4); "God commendeth His own love toward us in that, while = we were=20 yet sinners, Christ died for us.... If, while we were enemies, we were=20 reconciled to God through the death of His Son, much more, being = reconciled,=20 shall we be saved by His life" (Rom 5:8-10).

(2) The Immaculate Conception also contradicts Sacred = Tradition, which is contained in numerous patristic writings. These = speak of=20 Mary's exalted sanctity from her very birth, and while they also speak = of her=20 cleansing by the Holy Spirit at her conception of Christ, they mention = nothing=20 of any cleansing at the time of the conception by Anna. As St. Basil the = Great=20 writes: "There is none without stain before Thee, even though his life = be but a=20 day, save Thee alone, Jesus Christ our God, Who didst appear on earth = without=20 sin, and through Whom we all trust to obtain mercy and the remission of = sins"=20 (Third Prayer of Vespers at Pentecost). Again, as St. Gregory the = Theologian=20 states: "When Christ came through a pure, virginal, unwedded, = God-fearing,=20 undefiled Mother without wedlock and without father, and inasmuch as it = befitted=20 Him to be born, He purified female nature, rejected the bitter Eve and = overthrew=20 the laws of the flesh." (In Praise of Virginity). Even then, = however, as=20 Saints John Chrysostom and Basil the Great speak concerning this matter, = Mary=20 was not placed in a state of being unable to sin, but continued to take = care of=20 her salvation and overcame all temptations. (St. John Chrysostom, = Commentary=20 on John, Homily 85; St. Basil the Great, Epistle 160).

(3) The teaching that the Virgin Mary was purified = before her=20 birth so that the Pure Christ might be born of her, is = meaningless. If=20 the Pure Christ could be born only if Mary were born pure, it would be = necessary=20 that her parents be pure of original sin, and they again would have to = be born=20 of purified parents, and so forth. One could only conclude that Christ's = Incarnation could not have taken place unless all His ancestors in the = flesh,=20 even up to and including Adam, had been first purified of original sin. = In that=20 event, however, there would have been no need for the Incarnation of = Christ,=20 because Christ came down to earth in order to annihilate sin.

(4) Rome's teaching that the Virgin Mary was = preserved from=20 original sin, and its teaching that she was preserved by God's grace = from=20 personal sins, makes God unmerciful and unjust. If God could preserve = Mary from=20 sin and purify her at her conception, then why does He not do the same = for other=20 individuals, but instead leaves them in sin? It would follow from Rome's = teaching that God saves people apart from their will, predetermining = certain=20 ones at conception to salvation.

(5) Rome's teaching, while seeming at first to exalt = Mary, does=20 just the exact opposite: the Immaculate Conception belittles Mary by = denying=20 all her virtues. If Mary, even in the womb of her mother, could not = even=20 desire anything good or evil, and was preserved by God's grace from = every=20 impurity, and then by the same grace was preserved from sin after she = was born,=20 then where is her merit? If she did not sin because God made it=20 impossible for her to sin, why did God glorify her? If there were = no=20 effort on Mary's part and no impulses to sin, and she remained pure = because of=20 these reasons, then why is she regarded as the most holy of all the = saints?=20 There is no victory without an adversary.

The same St. John explains that:

The righteousness and sanctity of the Virgin Mary was = manifested in the fact that she, being "human with passions like us," so = loved=20 God and gave herself over to Him, that by her purity she was exalted = high above=20 the rest of the human race. For this, having been foreknown and = forechosen, she=20 was vouchsaved to be purified by the Holy Spirit, Who came upon her, and = to=20 conceive of Him the very Saviour of the world. The teaching of the = grace-given=20 sinlessness of the Virgin Mary denies her victory over temptations; from = a=20 victor who is worthy to be crowned with crowns of glory, this makes her = a blind=20 instrument of God's providence [The Orthodox Veneration of Mary, the=20 Birthgiver of God, pp. 59-60].

St. John quotes lengthy refutations of the ideas = behind the=20 doctrine of the Immaculate Conception from the writings of Blessed = Augustine of=20 Hippo and St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan. These two Fathers of the Western = Church=20 clearly testify that the false ideas of the Immaculate Conception which = spread=20 through the West were earlier rejected by the West when it was still = fully=20 Orthodox Christian. Moreover, even after Rome severed itself from = the=20 Apostolic Church in 1054, one of its acknowledged great authorities, = Bernard,=20 demonstrated the novelty and absurdity of Rome's false teaching. = (Because of the=20 length of these three refutations, they are not quoted here).

The "gift" of the pope and those others who imagine = they can=20 glorify the Mother of God by seeking out new truths is no gift at all. = The=20 Immaculate Conception is instead a belittlement to the Mother of = God. So=20 exalted was Mary's life on earth and so exalted is her glory in Heaven, = and so=20 much has God Himself glorified her, that human inventions cannot add = anything to=20 her honor and glory. The false teachings that people invent about Mary = only=20 obscure her face from their eyes. As the Apostle Paul writes: "Brethren, = take=20 heed lest there shall be any one that maketh spoil of you through = philosophy and=20 vain deceit, after the tradition of men, after the rudiments of the = world, and=20 not after Christ" (Col 2:8).

The heresy of the Immaculate Conception is such a = vain deceit.=20 Like every other lie, this false teaching is the seed of the father of = lies, the=20 devil (Jn 8:44). Through the Roman Catholic Church's lie of the = Immaculate=20 Conception, the devil has managed to deceive many who do not understand = that=20 they blaspheme the Mother of God. The Most Holy Mother of God = rejects the=20 lie, being the Mother of Truth (Jn 14:6).

27. Is the Latin teaching of the Assumption of = the=20 Virgin the same as the Orthodox doctrine of the Dormition of the = Virgin?

The doctrine of the Assumption of the Virgin, which = Rome=20 proclaimed to be a dogma in 1950, implies that Mary did not undergo a = physical=20 death because of the Immaculate Conception. That is, because Mary was = "preserved=20 immaculate from all stain of original sin," as Rome's pronouncement = read, she=20 would not have died like the rest of mankind, but would have been = assumed=20 directly into Heaven. This doctrine, like that of the Immaculate = Conception, is=20 a product of Rome's incorrect understanding of the ancestral sin, and it = is not=20 acceptable to Orthodox theology.

In the Church's Holy Tradition, it is recorded that = prior to=20 her death, the Mother of God prayed to Christ to deliver her from = the=20 hands of the malicious demons that meet human souls on the way to Heaven = in=20 order to try to seize them and take them away to hell. Christ heard the = prayers=20 of His Mother, and in the hour of her death, He came from Heaven with a=20 multitude of angels to receive Mary's soul, which is depicted as an = infant in=20 His hands in icons of the Dormition of the Mother of God. Moreover, all = of the=20 Apostles (save Thomas) gathered in Jerusalem when Mary died, and they = buried her=20 most pure body with sacred hymns. Ignoring these facts, the Roman = Catholic=20 Church once again severed itself from the Sacred Apostolic = Tradition to=20 which it itself adhered prior to its departure from the Church in = 1054.

Orthodoxy believes that all mankind, Mary included,=20 automatically inherit the mortality of Adam, although not Adam's guilt: = men are=20 guilty only insofar as they choose to imitate Adam. While Mary is = without=20 personal sin (since she did not imitate Adam's disobedience), she is = still a=20 member of the human race and did undergo a physical death like all of = Adam's=20 descendants. And like all of mankind, she needed to be saved by = Christ.

The Orthodox celebration of the Feast of the = Dormition of the=20 Theotokos is a guarantee that Mary's salvation after bodily death is the = destiny=20 of all people who follow her example of cooperation with the will of = God, and of=20 all who follow her example of love, obedience and humility. It is a sign = that=20 all God's faithful people, after Mary's example, will become temples of = the=20 living God and that they will share in God's Kingdom.

In addition to the Roman Catholic Church's dogma of = the=20 Assumption of the Virgin, there also developed a cult of the = Immaculate Heart=20 of the Most Holy Virgin, which has been universally disseminated, = along with=20 Rome's cult of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Protopresbyter Michael=20 Pomazansky explains that applicable to the second cult is a decree of = the Fifth=20 Ecumenical Council (the Ninth Canon against Heretics), which states:

If anyone shall take the expression, Christ ought to = be=20 worshiped in His two natures, in the sense that he wishes to introduce = thus two=20 adorations, the one in special relation to God the Word and the other as = pertaining to the Man... and does not venerate, by one adoration, God = the Word=20 made man, together with His flesh, as the Holy Church has taught from = the=20 beginning, let him be anathema [Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, pp.=20 186-87].

Fr. Michael states that although this decree touches = only upon=20 the separate worship of Christ's Divinity and His Humanity, it still = indirectly=20 shows that in general the veneration and worship of the Saviour should = be=20 directed to Him as a whole, and not to parts of His Being. He also = states that=20 even if heart is taken to mean Christ's love itself, still, = neither in=20 the Old Testament nor in the New was there ever a custom to worship = separately=20 God's love, His wisdom, His creative or providential power, or His = sanctity. Fr.=20 Michael adds that:

All the more must one say this concerning the parts = of=20 [Christ's] bodily nature. There is something unnatural in the separation = of the=20 heart from the general bodily nature of the Lord for the purpose of = prayer,=20 contrition and worship before Him. Even in the ordinary relationships of = life,=20 no matter how much a man might be attached to another =97 for example, a = mother to=20 a child =97 he would never refer to his attachment to the heart of the = beloved=20 person, but will refer it to the given person as a whole = [Ibid].

With regard to the Latin Church's cult of the = Immaculate Heart=20 of the Most Holy Virgin, Fr. Michael remarks that one can say the same = thing=20 that was said about the veneration of the heart of Jesus. As another = writer=20 expounds further on the matter, the veneration of the heart of Christ = and the=20 Mother of God is just as inappropriate as the veneration of their lungs = or=20 pancreas =97 something that goes against piety and would be = unthinkable.

28. Give your understanding of the following = (bearing in=20 mind that the discussion of the subject in the textbook is very brief): = a) the=20 nature of hell, b) the nature of the fire of hell, and c) the nature of = the=20 Parousia.

A. Some Gospel readings at the Liturgies of the three = Sundays=20 shortly preceding Great Lent demonstrate the Orthodox attitude towards = the Last=20 Judgment and hell. The first Sunday's Gospel is the parable of the = publican and=20 Pharisee, and the second Sunday's is that of the prodigal son. Both show = God's=20 immense forgiveness and mercy to all sinners who repent. The third = Sunday's=20 Gospel reading is the parable of the sheep and the goats. This parable = reminds=20 Christians of another possibility: that one can reject God and turn from = Him and=20 choose hell. "Then shall He say to those on the left hand, the curse of = God is=20 upon you, go from My sight into everlasting fire" (Mt 25:41).

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky states that in = these words of=20 Christ and elsewhere, the Word of God speaks with positiveness and = certainty=20 concerning the eternal torments of evil men. This condition of torment = is=20 depicted as a place of torment, and it is called gehenna. Christ stated: = "If thy=20 hand offend thee, cut it off; it is better for thee to enter into life = maimed,=20 than having two hands to go into hell, into the fire that shall never be = quenched, where the worm dieth not, and the fire is not quenched" (Mk = 9:43-44,=20 also 45-48). "There shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth," Christ = stated many=20 times concerning hell (Mt 8:12 and other places). St. John the = Theologian calls=20 this place or condition "a lake of fire" (Rev 19:20). Likewise the = Apostle Paul=20 writes that" "In flaming fire taking vengeance on them that know not = God, and=20 that obey not the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ" (2 Thes 1:8).

The torments of hell, as Holy Scripture has handed = down, are=20 the wailing and gnashing of teeth from despair, being consumed by the = worm that=20 never dies, the agony from unquenchable fire, and being cast into outer=20 darkness. The "torments" and "darkness" are the estrangement from God, = and the=20 wasting away of the souls of the damned, tormented by an evil = conscience.

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky states that the = Church,=20 basing itself on the Word of God, acknowledges the torments of gehenna = to be=20 eternal and unending. The Church therefore condemned at the Fifth = Ecumenical=20 Council the false teaching of the Origenists that the demons and impious = people=20 would suffer in hell only for a certain definite time, and then would be = restored to their original condition of innocence (apokatastasis = in=20 Greek). The condemnation at the Universal Judgment is called in the = Apocalypse=20 of St. John the Theologian the "second death" (Apoc 20:14).

One sometimes hears that the existence of hell is = inconsistent=20 with the belief in a loving God. The same Fr. Michael addresses this = assertion.=20 He writes that an attempt to understand the torments of gehenna in a = relative=20 sense, to understand eternity as some kind of age or period =97 perhaps = a long=20 one, but one still having an end =97 was made in antiquity, just as it = is made=20 today. In this attempt, Fr. Michael notes, are brought forward = conceptions of a=20 logical kind: the disharmony between such torments and the goodness of = God is=20 pointed out, as is the seeming disproportion between crimes that are = temporal=20 and the eternity of the punishments for sin, as well as the disharmony = between=20 these eternal punishments and the final aim of the creation of man, = which is=20 blessedness in God.

Fr. Michael writes that it is not for us to define = the=20 boundaries between the unutterable mercy of God and His justice or=20 righteousness. We know that the Lord "will have all men to be saved, and = to come=20 unto the knowledge of the truth" (1 Tim 2:4). However, man is capable, = through=20 his own evil will, of rejecting the mercy of God and the means of = salvation. As=20 Mark the Monk, a hermit of the fifth century, wrote: "No one is so good = and full=20 of pity as God, but even He does not forgive those who do not = repent."

Fr. Michael quotes St. John Chrysostom, who, in = interpreting=20 the depiction of the Last Judgment, remarks:

When [the Lord] spoke about the Kingdom, after = saying, "Come,=20 ye blessed of My Father, inherit the Kingdom," He added, which is = "prepared for=20 you from the foundation of the world" (Mt 25:34), but when speaking = about the=20 fire, He did not speak thus, but He added: which is "prepared for the = devil and=20 his angels" (Mt 25:41). For I have prepared for you a Kingdom, but the = fire I=20 have prepared not for you but for the devil and his angels. But since = you have=20 cast your own selves into the fire, therefore accuse yourself for this=20 [Ibid., pp. 349-50].

Fr. Michael states that we have no right to = understand the=20 words of Christ only conditionally, as a threat or as a certain = pedagogical=20 means applied by the Saviour. If one understands it in this way, one = errs, for=20 Christ does not instill in us any such understanding. Fr. Michael also = notes=20 that such a mistaken notion subjects one to God's wrath according to the = words=20 of the Psalmist: "Why hath the ungodly one provoked God? For he hath = said in his=20 heart: He will not make enquiry" (Ps 9:34). Fr. Michael goes on to note = that the=20 very concept of anger in relation to God is conditional and=20 anthropomorphic, and he quotes St. Anthony the Great, who states:

God is good, dispassionate and immutable. Now someone = who=20 thinks it reasonable and true to affirm that God does not change, may = well ask=20 how in that case, it is possible to speak of God as rejoicing over those = who are=20 good and showing mercy to those who honor Him, while turning away from = the=20 wicked and being angry with sinners. To this it must be answered that = God=20 neither rejoices nor grows angry, for to rejoice and to be offended are=20 passions; nor is He won over by the gifts of those who honor Him, for = that would=20 mean He is swayed by pleasure.... He is good, and He only bestows = blessings and=20 never does harm, remaining always the same. We men, on the other hand, = if we=20 remain good through resembling God, are united to Him; but if we become = evil=20 through not resembling God, we are separated from Him. By living in = holiness, we=20 cleave to God; but by becoming wicked we make Him our enemy. It is not = that He=20 grows angry with us in an arbitrary way, but it is our own sins that = prevent God=20 from shining within us, and expose us to the demons who punish us. And = if=20 through prayer and acts of compassion we gain release from our sins, = this does=20 not mean that we have won God over and made Him change, but that through = our=20 actions and our turning to God we have cured our wickedness and so once = more=20 have enjoyment of God's goodness. Thus to say that God turns away from = the=20 wicked is like saying that the sun hides itself from the blind = [Ibid.,=20 pp. 350-51].

Fr. Michael also adds that worthy of attention are = the words of=20 St. Theophan the Recluse:

The righteous will go into eternal life, but the = satanized=20 sinners into eternal torment, into communion with the demons. Will these = torments end? If satanism and becoming like Satan should end, then the = torments=20 also can end. But is there an end to satanism and becoming like Satan? = We will=20 behold and see this then. But until then we shall believe that just as = eternal=20 life will have no end, so also the eternal torment that threatens = sinners will=20 have no end. No conjectures can show the possibility of the end of = satanism.=20 What did Satan not see after his fall! How much of the powers of God was = revealed! How he himself was struck by the power of the Lord's Cross! = How up to=20 now all his cunningness and malice are defeated by this power! But still = he is=20 incorrigible, he constantly opposes; and the farther he goes, the more = stubborn=20 he becomes. No, there is no hope at all for him to be corrected! And if = there is=20 no hope for him, then there is no hope either for men who become = satanized by=20 his influence. This means that there must be hell with eternal torments=20 [Ibid., p. 351].

Fr. Michael concludes that:

The writings of the holy Christian ascetics indicate = that the=20 higher one's moral awareness is raised, the more acute become the = feeling of=20 moral responsibility, the fear of offending God, and the awareness of = the=20 unavoidability of punishment for deviating from the commandment of God. = But to=20 just the same degree does hope in God's mercy grow. To hope in it and = ask for it=20 from the Lord is for each of us a duty and a consolation = [Ibid].

B. The Church does not teach that God tortures = evildoers with=20 material fire and physical agony. Rather, God will reveal Himself in = such a=20 resplendent, radiant glory in His Son Jesus that no man will fail to = perceive=20 His exceeding greatness. The saints taught that the "fire" of hell that = will=20 consume those who have rejected God is the fire of God's love. "For our = God is a=20 consuming fire" (Heb 12: 29), One Who "dwells in unapproachable light" = (1 Tim=20 6:16). Those who have denied God are not deprived of God's love in hell, = but for=20 them the coming of His love and light will be a sore affliction. For = them, God's=20 consuming fire will be a cause of suffering, weeping, and gnashing of = teeth. St.=20 John of Damascus teaches that "sinners will be given over to everlasting = fire,=20 which will not be a material fire such as we are accustomed to, but a = fire such=20 as God might know" [Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, p. = 406].=20 Vladimir Lossky adds that "the love of God will be an intolerable = torment for=20 those who have not acquired it within themselves."

This fire is also the same fire that will brilliantly = shine in=20 the redeemed. While the wicked experience God's love as suffering, the = saints=20 will experience His love as joy. St. Isaac the Syrian states that:

Those who find themselves in hell will be chastised = by the=20 scourge of love. How cruel and bitter this torment of love will be! For = those=20 who understand that they have sinned against love undergo no greater = suffering=20 than those produced by the most fearful tortures. The sorrow which takes = hold of=20 the heart which has sinned against love is more piercing than any other = pain. It=20 is not right to say that sinners in hell are deprived of the love of = God.... But=20 love acts in two ways, as suffering of the reproved, and as joy in the = blessed!=20 [Mystic Treatises].

C. Parousia is the Greek word for the Second Coming. = Since the=20 time of Christ's Ascension from earth to Heaven, the spiritual gaze of=20 Christians has been directed to the greatest future event of world = history:=20 Christ's Second Coming to earth. Testimony concerning it is given many = times by=20 Christ Himself, by the angels at the Ascension, and also by the = Apostles.

At the beginning of the Second Coming, there "shall = appear the=20 sign of the Son of Man in Heaven; and then shall all the tribes of the = earth=20 mourn" (Mt 24:30). According to the universal interpretation of the Holy = Fathers, this sign will be the life-giving Cross of the Lord.

Christ states that the Second Coming will be sudden = and obvious=20 to everyone: "For as the lightning cometh out of the East and shineth = even unto=20 the West, so shall the coming of the Son of Man be" (Mt 24:27). Again, = it will=20 appear "as a thief in the night" (1 Thes 5:21); "Therefore you must be = ready;=20 for the Son of Man is coming at an hour you do not expect" (Mt = 24:44).

At that future time, Christ will come in all His = glory,=20 surrounded by innumerable choirs of angels: "And they shall see the Son = of Man=20 coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory" (Mt 24:30), = "with=20 holy angels" (Mk 8:38). "He shall sit on the throne of His glory" (Mt = 25:31).=20 Thus, Christ's Second Coming will be different from the first when He = "humbled=20 Himself, and became obedient unto death, even the death of the Cross" = (Phil=20 2:8).

Also, the purpose of Christ's Second Coming into the = world is=20 distinguished from the purpose of His first coming, when He came "not to = judge=20 the world, but that the world might be saved" (Jn 3:17), and when He = came "to=20 give His life [as] a ransom for many" (Mt 20: 28). In His Second Coming, = Christ=20 will come to "judge the world in righteousness" (Acts 17:31) and to = "reward=20 every man according to his works" (Mt 16:27).

Early Christians, as well as the Holy Fathers = throughout the=20 ages, have felt that the end of things was at hand, that Christ's Second = Coming=20 was imminent. Two millennia have since passed, however, and it has not = yet=20 occurred. Were the early Christians and Fathers mistaken in thinking the = end was=20 about to come? Not at all. Hieromonk Seraphim Rose explains that:

First of all, Christ comes to each person; each = person must=20 live in this world once and die. Therefore, for each one of us, the = coming of=20 Christ is very soon. This is very true.

Secondly, anyone who lives by faith and looks at = things=20 mystically =97 that is, tries to look behind the eternal events of = history =97 sees=20 that indeed those things are already happening which are to come to = pass. In=20 fact, St. John himself says in one of his epistles, "You have heard that = the=20 antichrist is to come; even now there are many antichrists." Even in his = days,=20 the end of the first century, already many antichrists had come; that = is, many=20 people who were in the spirit of the antichrist had come, and there = would be=20 many more. The antichrist is both outside and inside the Church. = Certainly the=20 Communists are a kind of antichrist; and people who try to corrupt the = Church=20 from within also perform the role of the antichrist. We can look = throughout=20 history and see many who were very much in the spirit of the antichrist, = but=20 they were not yet the antichrist who is to come at the very end. That = spirit of=20 antichrist was present at the very beginning of the history of the = Church,=20 because the devil instantly began his warfare against it.

Therefore, since the Book of the Apocalypse is about = the whole=20 warfare of the Church of Christ against the devil, all these things = which are=20 going to happen at the end, begin to happen right at the beginning of = the=20 history of the Church.

In conclusion, we must view "shortly" as referring = first of all=20 to our own death, because eschatology =97 the study of the last things = =97 refers to=20 not only the end of the world, but also to the end of our life, for when = each=20 one of us dies, he goes into that other world and there awaits the end = of this=20 world. And secondly, it refers to the fact that it indeed is a short = time as=20 history is measured, and in the sight of God. We can go back five, six, = seven=20 thousand years in history. Two thousand years is a small part of = that.

The textbook sums up its explanation of the Second = Coming by=20 noting that it is not only a future event, but is something that is = already=20 breaking into the present age in the life of the Church. As Christians, = we enjoy=20 the first fruits of God's Kingdom while the Age to Come is presently = being=20 inaugurated. The New Testament ends with the words, Even so, come, Lord = Jesus.=20 The Lord Jesus has come already =97 in the Holy Liturgy and in the = Church's=20 worship.

29. What do you feel is the most important = point in this=20 chapter?

This chapter is about the Church of God. As such, its = most=20 important point concerns the purpose of the Church. Protopresbyter = Michael=20 Pomazansky gives this purpose in his explanation that:

The Church is our spiritual Home. As with one's own = home =97 and=20 even more than that =97 a Christian's thoughts and actions are closely = bound up=20 with the Church. In it he must, as long as he lives on earth, work out = his=20 salvation, and make use of the grace-given means of sanctification given = him by=20 it. It prepares its children for the heavenly homeland [Op. cit., = p.=20 225].

11. Orthodox = Worship.

1. The textbook cites the story of Grand = Prince=20 Vladimir's emissaries and afterwards makes a commentary on various = elements of=20 this story. Summarize this commentary, giving a brief picture of = Orthodox=20 worship.

Prior to Russia's conversion to Christianity in 988, = Grand=20 Prince Vladimir of Kiev (ruled 980-1015) was approached by various=20 nationalities: the Turkic Bulgarians who were Moslems, the Khazars who = professed=20 Judaism, the Franks and Scandinavians who adhered to Latin Christianity, = and the=20 Byzantines who belonged to Eastern Orthodoxy. Each of these groups urged = the=20 prince to accept its particular faith. Realizing the need to choose a = religion=20 for his state, Vladimir summoned the boyars and elders about the matter, = and it=20 was decided to send ten wise men to various countries in order to find = the true=20 religion. In the year 987, emissaries were sent to the Moslem Bulgars of = the=20 Volga (not to be confused with the Slavic Bulgarians of the Balkans), = then to=20 Germany and Rome to view Roman Christianity, and finally to = Constantinople where=20 they attended Divine Liturgy in the great Church of the Holy Wisdom and = observed=20 Orthodox Christianity. These men reported back to Vladimir and his = vassals=20 that:

When we journeyed among the Bulgarians, we beheld how = they=20 worship in their temple, called a mosque, while they stood upright. The=20 Bulgarian bows, sits down, looks hither and thither like one possessed, = and=20 there is no happiness among them, but instead only sorrow and a dreadful = stench.=20 Their religion is not good. Then we went among the Germans and saw them=20 performing many ceremonies in their temples; but we beheld no glory = there. Then=20 we went on to Greece, and the Greeks led us to the edifices where they = worship=20 their God, and we knew not whether we were in Heaven or on earth. For on = earth=20 there is no such splendor or such beauty, and we are at a loss how to = describe=20 it. We know only that God dwells there among men, and their service is = fairer=20 than the ceremonies of other nations. For we cannot forget that = beauty.

The envoys were so impressed that they wanted to move = to=20 Constantinople so they could continually enjoy the beauty they had seen. = Within=20 a year of the report they gave, Vladimir and the Russian people were = baptized=20 into Christ by Orthodox missionaries, for the prince believed that = Orthodox=20 Christianity was best suited to the temperament of the Russians and that = it was=20 indeed the true faith.

This incident shows a number of features that = characterize=20 Orthodox Christianity. The first is the emphasis on divine beauty of = worship.=20 Among outside observers =97 Vladimir's emissaries among them =97 it is = seen that a=20 distinctive and peculiar gift of Orthodox Christianity is the power of=20 perceiving the beauty in the spiritual world and expressing that beauty = in its=20 worship. Western European merchants, for example, when traveling through = the=20 Balkans during its long years under Turkish suzerainty, would invariably = comment=20 on the ineffable otherworldly beauty and majesty of the services at the = Serbian=20 monasteries. These qualities of unsurpassed beauty and glory in worship = can be=20 seen in all Orthodox services. Even to this day, when non-Orthodox = people enter=20 into Orthodox churches and follow the Divine Liturgy, they marvel and = are moved=20 to tears, for Orthodox Christianity is the most beautiful religion in = the world.=20 As St. Vladimir's emissaries reported: "We cannot forget that = beauty."

In the second place, it is characteristic that the = emissaries=20 should have stated: "We knew not whether we were in Heaven or on earth." = Orthodox worship is nothing else than Heaven on earth, and the = sense of=20 God's presence among men is felt by many who have experienced Orthodox = worship=20 in much more humble surroundings than the Church of the Holy Wisdom in=20 Constantinople. A telling example is that of a letter written in 1935 by = an=20 Englishwoman, wherein she states:

The morning was so queer. A very grimy and sordid = Presbyterian=20 mission hall in a mews over a garage, where the Russians are allowed = once a=20 fortnight to have the Liturgy. A very stage property iconostasis and a = few=20 modern icons. A dirty floor to kneel on and a form along the wall.... = And in=20 this two superb old priests and a deacon, clouds of incense and, at the=20 Anaphora, an overwhelming supernatural impression [Evenly Underhill, as = quoted=20 from Timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church, p. 271].

Likewise, in 1675 Johannes Herbinius wrote that:

The Russians glorify the Lord in much more solemn = manner than=20 do the Romans. The parishioners sing together beautifully as they = respond to the=20 choir. The harmonies in their singing are beautiful.... I was so taken = by their=20 singing that I thought I stood in Jerusalem, where the spirit of the = early=20 Church was such an inspirational factor [Quoted in Olga Dolskaya, = "Russian=20 Liturgical Choral Aesthetics...," Orthodox Life, vol. 49. no. 6, = 1999, p.=20 16].

In the Holy Liturgy, the textbook notes, is something = that=20 embraces two worlds at once, for both in Heaven and on earth the Liturgy = is one=20 and the same: one altar, one sacrifice, one presence. In every place of = worship,=20 no matter how humble the building, as the faithful gather to perform the = Eucharist, they are taken up to heavenly places. And in every church = when the=20 Holy Sacrifice is offered, not only is the local congregation present, = but the=20 Church Universal =97 Christ Himself, the Theotokos, the angels and = saints. In the=20 words of the Hymn of the Mystical Sacrifice sung at the Liturgy of the=20 Presanctified: "Now the powers of Heaven do serve invisibly with us.... = Lo the=20 King of Glory enters." St. Vladimir's envoys stated that they knew only = that God=20 dwells there among men, and inspired by the same vision of Heaven on = earth,=20 Orthodox Christians endeavor to make the Church's worship in its outward = splendor and beauty an icon of the Great Liturgy in Heaven.

A third characteristic feature that the incident = shows of=20 Orthodox Christianity is that when the Russians wanted to discover the = true=20 faith, they did not make inquiries into moral rules or demand a reasoned = statement of doctrine. Instead, they watched the nations in prayer. The = textbook=20 explains that the Orthodox approach to religion is fundamentally a = liturgical=20 approach, one that understands doctrine in the context of divine = worship. It is=20 no coincidence that the word Orthodox should signify both right = belief=20 and right glory (or right worship), for the two are inseparable. = Orthodoxy is=20 nothing less than the Church of Christ on earth, the Church which = guards=20 and teaches true belief about God, and which glorifies Him with right = worship.=20 It has correctly been observed that:

Dogma with [the Orthodox] is not only an intellectual = system=20 apprehended by the clergy and expounded to the laity, but a field of = vision=20 wherein all things on earth are seen in their relation to things in = Heaven,=20 first and foremost through liturgical celebration [G. Every, The = Byzantine=20 Patriarchate, p. 9].

Those qualities that were so readily apparent to = Vladimir's=20 emissaries at the Holy Liturgy in Constantinople =97 its divine beauty = in worship,=20 its heavenliness, the feeling of the presence of God, its liturgical = approach =97=20 all are characteristic of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. In an Orthodox = Liturgy,=20 "the faithful can feel that the walls of the church open out upon = eternity," the=20 textbook states, "and they are helped to realize that their Liturgy is = one and=20 the same with the Liturgy in Heaven."

One element of the story of Vladimir's choosing = Orthodox=20 Christianity for Kievan Rus' is of all possible significance (although = it is not=20 mentioned in the textbook). The Russians had the possibility of choosing = any of=20 the existing religions, including any of the various paths within = Christianity.=20 Although the Great Schism of 1054 had not yet taken place (it would = occur=20 sixty-six years ahead), the Roman Church had actually fallen away = from=20 ancient Apostolic Christianity, preserved in Orthodoxy, long = before 1054.=20 As historians note, history is basically an unbroken continuum in which = any=20 clear-cut break or division is impossible or delusive. In accordance = with this=20 principle, the estrangement of the Latin Church from Orthodoxy did not = take=20 place by proclamation in 1054, tout court. Instead, the schism = came about=20 gradually, as the result of a long and complicated process that = began in=20 the ninth century, one that separated the pope and his followers from = the=20 traditions of the early Church. The 1054 date is used simply for = convenience to=20 mark the time when Rome's severance from Orthodoxy was finalized, = although the date is actually insignificant. Thus, the Russians = deliberately=20 rejected Latin Christianity.

The same rejection is seen again when St. Alexander = Nevsky was=20 forced to fight the Swedes in 1240 and the Teutonic Knights in 1242 to = prevent=20 the forcible conversion of Russians to Roman Catholicism. After his two = decisive=20 victories over the Roman Catholics, he refused any religious compromise = with the=20 Latin Church. "Our doctrines are those preached by the Apostles," he = stated to=20 the messengers of the pope. "The tradition of the Holy Fathers and the = Seven=20 Ecumenical Councils we scrupulously keep. As for your words, we do not = listen to=20 them and we do not want your doctrine."

Another important feature of Russia's conversion = (again not=20 mentioned by the textbook, but explained by a Russian hermit) is that = St.=20 Vladimir baptized his Kievan princedom and gave all of Russia the = Orthodox=20 Christian faith at the very time when Byzantium had reached its highest = point in=20 all phases of spiritual culture. By that time all the basic heresies had = been=20 identified and uprooted by the Seven Ecumenical Councils, and = monasticism was in=20 full bloom. Russia was therefore entrusted from the very start with the = fullness=20 of the pure and true faith, Holy Orthodoxy. Russia treasured this holy = faith=20 throughout the ages as the supreme heritage in its hierarchy of values, = thus=20 becoming, in the activities of its best sons and daughters, Holy = Russia, the=20 guardian of Holy Orthodoxy. Such Russia remained when it was raised = upon the=20 cross in 1917, and such Russia has continued to remain to this very = day.

2. Write our Protopresbyter Georges Florovsky's words = quoted on=20 page 271, and give your interpretation of these words.

Christianity is a liturgical religion. The Church is = first of=20 all a worshiping community. Worship comes first, doctrine and discipline = second=20 [Protopresbyter Georges Florovsky].

Important as doctrine and discipline are in the life = of the=20 Church, there is something more important: worship, and that = worship is=20 above all else communal and liturgical in character. In attending the = Divine=20 Liturgy, which is the central mystical action of the entire Church, = Christians=20 gather in the unity of one heart, one mind, and one soul to pray as a = community,=20 to unite themselves and their concerns with the prayer of the Church and = with=20 the eternal prayer of Christ, the Theotokos, the saints, and the = individual=20 members of that particular Christian community.

Philip said to Nathanael: "Come and see" (Jn 1:46). = Likewise,=20 those wishing to know about Orthodoxy should follow the example of = Vladimir's=20 entourage by coming to see the Liturgy, for it is a much more direct way = of=20 understanding the faith than by reading books.

3. In another statement, the textbook observes = why=20 "liturgical changes cannot be lightly regarded." What phrase does it use = to=20 demonstrate this fundamental principle?

Worship is the faith in action, the textbook states. = It is for=20 this reason that liturgical changes cannot be lightly regarded.

Typical of the Orthodox viewpoint in this matter are = the words=20 of a Russian writer of the fifteenth century. When attacking the reunion = council=20 of Florence, he did not address the matter of the Latins' errors in = doctrine=20 (although this matter is most assuredly important!), but he addressed = their=20 behavior in worship. He wrote:

What have you seen of worth among the Latins? They do = not even=20 know how to venerate the Church of God. They raise their voices as the = fools,=20 and their singing is a discordant wail. They have no idea of beauty and=20 reverence in worship, for they strike trombones, blow horns, use organs, = wave=20 their hands, trample with the feet, and do many other irreverent and = disorderly=20 things which bring joy to the devil [As quoted from Timothy Ware, The = Orthodox Church, p. 272].

The author of the textbook states that he cites this = passage as=20 an example of the liturgical approach of Orthodoxy, and he goes = on to=20 state that he does not necessarily endorse the strictures on Western = worship=20 which it contains. Archpriest Alexey Young, however, a convert from = Roman=20 Catholicism to Orthodoxy, is not the least bit equivocal in endorsing = the=20 criticism.

Western Christianity, Fr. Alexey observes, started = becoming so=20 imbued with the humanistic principles of the Renaissance that man has = been made=20 the measure of all things in the West, with God added as an = afterthought, if=20 added at all. This process has continued in the West through the ages,=20 especially in the massive de-Christianization of the Latin = Church's=20 worship that was introduced by the Second Ecumenical Council. At that = time, the=20 ancient Mass of the Roman rite, much of which dates to the sixth = century, was=20 destroyed. Then, in its place, new forms of "worship" were introduced, = with=20 Catholic priests in psychedelic vestments serving in sanctuaries = surrounded by=20 kindergarten-looking felt banners. The new worship was = irreverent,=20 uninspiring and banal, and it was the cause of millions of = Catholics to stop attending church. The damage went much further, = though, for=20 God's name was dropped in numerous places in the "new Mass" and = replaced=20 with... "the people." A horrified Catholic priest, Fr. James = Wathen,=20 laments:

Of its very nature, the "new Mass" liberates = the=20 "children of God" that they might make a game out of worship....=20 Intrinsic to the very idea of the "new Mass" is that the people are more = important than Christ the Saviour.... Is it not they who must be = entertained,=20 accommodated, and emoted over? In the incessantly repeated phrase = the=20 people of God, it is the people who, in Marxist fashion, are = being=20 acclaimed =97 not God. They have been given the place of = God [Quoted=20 in Archpriest Alexey Young, The Rush to Embrace; emphasis = added].

Concerning the extremes to which Roman Catholic = worship=20 services have turned =97 grotesque "carnival masses," "circus masses," = "clown=20 masses," "jazz masses," and the use of drums, guitars and other = instruments of=20 secular music, one hardly needs to comment. A similar secularization has = also=20 taken place in Protestant worship. Frank Schaeffer, a convert from=20 Protestantism, takes an analytical look at the debased spectacles now=20 encountered in the Protestant Churches. Having embraced Orthodoxy, Mr. = Schaeffer=20 now understands that:

Most Protestants have no historical liturgical = prayers. They=20 may have fragments =97 echoes of the historical Christian past =97 but = these are=20 mere disconnected remembrances. They are flotsam and jetsam of the = historical=20 faith, washed upon the modern shore. Many Protestants may well be deeply = spiritual, but nevertheless they have been denied the tools of the faith = that=20 the historical [Orthodox] Church has at its disposal.

A study of Church history shows Protestant worship, = as it is=20 usually practiced today, bears almost no resemblance to the sacramental=20 liturgical worship of the entire Church for the better part of two = thousand=20 years in both East and West. This is not a theological opinion, much = less a=20 moral judgment, but simply a statement of historical fact. The Church's=20 practices are well documented.

So entertainment-oriented, even trivial, has the = majority of=20 Protestant worship become that even the fear of God, according to the = teaching=20 of the Church, the most basic prerequisite for individual repentance, = seems to=20 have been largely lost. The mystery of faith has been replaced with=20 rationalistic theology on the one hand, and frivolous, internalized,=20 "touchy-feely" entertainments on the other.

The Fathers of the Church warned of the consequences = of=20 desacralization long ago. Today these warnings seem to fall largely on = unhearing=20 ears. St. Evagrios the Solitary, one of the desert Fathers of the fourth = century, writes:

For prayer is truly vain and useless when not = performed with=20 fear and trembling, with inner watchfulness and vigilance. When someone=20 approaches an earthly king, he treats him with fear and trembling and = attention;=20 so much the more, then, should he stand and pray in this manner before = God the;=20 Father, the Master of all, and before Christ the King of kings [The=20 Philokalia,, vol. 1, p. 37].

In comparison to the ancient liturgical worship of = the=20 historical Church, even the so-called liturgical Protestant = denominations, like=20 the Lutherans and Episcopalians (and tragically, many Americanized Roman = Catholic parishes), have left behind their respect for Apostolic = authority.=20 Outside the more liturgically inclined Protestant denominations, in the = place of=20 the ancient Liturgies of the Church, we have seen a host of = self-invented,=20 irreverent, subjective spectacles ranging from comedy, to one-man shows, = mass=20 hysteria, political correctness, egocentric preaching, flippancy, to = cultic=20 intensity and warmed-over popular culture. These religious spectacles = are led by=20 a myriad of self-appointed personalities whose authority to teach, = baptize or=20 serve the sacraments, seems to rest not on Apostolic Succession, Holy = Tradition,=20 or even doctrine, but on their personal popularity or celebrity status=20 [Dancing Alone: the Quest for the Orthodox Faith in the Age of False=20 Religion, pp. 7-9].

In his monograph "Protestant Fundamentalistic = Thought," Fr.=20 James Thornton, an Orthodox priest and a nationally-known political = columnist=20 and author, depicts the horrid state of affairs to which the = desacralization of=20 Western worship has led. His picture is one with which we are all too=20 familiar:

In our own time the whole world has been scandalized = by the=20 activities of certain prominent fundamentalists, and their = extravagances, their=20 limousines and mansions, their private jets, their air-conditioned dog = houses,=20 their garish style of dress and outlandish and grotesque hairstyles, = their=20 crudities and vulgarities, their tawdry use of Holy Scripture, their = clownish=20 antics and near-blasphemous inanities, their lurid sexual escapades, = their crass=20 "P.T. Barnum" commercialism, and their cynical use of the simple people = who=20 follow them. Men who claim to be ordained ministers of the Gospel of = Christ tell=20 their gulled listeners that they must raise so many millions of dollars, = or else=20 God will strike them dead.... The use of shills, pitchmen, phony sick = people who=20 come forward to be "healed," hidden microphones, satanic rock music,=20 scantily-clad females, and every manner of commercial humbug known to = Hollywood,=20 is all now stock-in-trade for these people [pp. 20-21].

Archpriest Alexey Young comments that the old axiom = lex=20 orandi, lex credendi (as we worship, so we believe), certainly holds = true.

4. Carefully read pages 272-80 of the = textbook, and then=20 submit an essay.

The remainder of this chapter deals with the church = building=20 and its arrangement, and also with liturgical theology, that is, with=20 Orthodoxy's solemn and beautiful worship, the earthly Heaven, which was = handed=20 down from the time of the Apostles and early Christians. All the aspects = of=20 worship that the textbook describes would have been familiar to the = Christians=20 of the early Church, just as these aspects are familiar to Orthodox = Christians=20 today, for the Orthodox Church today is the very continuation of the = ancient=20 Church established by Christ two thousand years ago.

The textbook states that in Orthodoxy, man is seen = above all=20 else as "a liturgical creature who is most truly himself when he = glorifies God,=20 and who finds his perfection and self-fulfillment in worship." Beyond = this=20 juncture, the textbook's account of the services pales in comparison to = that of=20 Archbishop Seraphim Slobodskoy. The following information is therefore = drawn=20 from the much more thorough examination of the services given in Fr. = Seraphim's=20 monumental book The Law of God.

Fr. Seraphim mentions that those services which the = Orthodox=20 Church celebrates in the course of one day are known as the daily cycle = of=20 divine services. There are nine daily services: Vespers, Compline, = Midnight=20 Office, Matins, First Hour, Third Hour, Sixth Hour and Ninth Hour, and = the=20 Divine Liturgy.

Fr. Seraphim explains that the new day in the = Orthodox Church=20 begins with Vespers, which is celebrated towards the end of the day. = Orthodoxy=20 follows the example of Moses in this matter, for Moses, when describing = the=20 creation of the world by God, began the "day" with evening. In this = service,=20 Christians express their gratitude to God for the day that has = passed.

Compline is the service composed of the reading of a = series of=20 prayers. In these prayers, worshipers ask the Lord God for forgiveness = of sins=20 and that He grant them, upon retiring, repose of body and soul, and that = He=20 preserve them from the wiles of the devil during their sleep.

The Midnight Office is appointed to be read at = midnight in=20 remembrance of the prayer of the Saviour during the night in the Garden = of=20 Gethsemane. The service summons the faithful to be ready at all times = for the=20 Dread Judgment, which will come unexpectedly like "a bridegroom in the = night,"=20 as the parable of the ten virgins shows.

Continuing his explanation, Fr. Seraphim states that = Matins is=20 celebrated in the morning prior to the rising of the sun. In this = service,=20 thanks is given to God for the night which has passed, and mercy is = asked of Him=20 for the approaching day.

The First Hour corresponds to the first three hours = of our day=20 (6:00 am to 9:00 am). In the Old and New Testaments, an hour = meant a=20 watch that lasted three of our hours, and each service of the daily = cycle=20 corresponds to one of these three-hour divisions. Fr. Seraphim explains = that=20 this First Hour sanctifies the already breaking day with prayer. The = Third Hour=20 covers the time from 9:00 am to 12:00 noon, and it recalls the descent = of the=20 Holy Spirit upon the Apostles. The Sixth Hour represents the period from = 12:00=20 noon to 3:00 pm. It reminds Christians of Christ's Passion and = Crucifixion,=20 while the Ninth Hour, covering the hours from 3:00 pm to 6:00 pm, = reminds us of=20 Christ's death upon the Cross.

The Holy Liturgy is Eastern Orthodoxy's main and most = important=20 divine service because in it is accomplished the great Mystery of the = Eucharist,=20 which was instituted by the Saviour Himself in the Mystical Supper. = During the=20 course of the celebration of the Liturgy, the entire earthly life of = Christ,=20 from His Nativity to His Ascension, is called to mind. The Liturgy is = always=20 celebrated on the Lord's Day and on feast days. Daily celebrations are = less=20 common, although they do occur in monasteries and cathedrals. (More will = be said=20 of the Liturgy below).

In former times, monastics and hermits conducted all = of these=20 services separately at their appointed times. Later, to accommodate = those living=20 in the world, they were combined into three groups of services: = evening=20 (Ninth Hour, Vespers and Compline), morning (Midnight Office, = Matins and=20 First Hour), and daytime services (Third and Sixth Hours, and the = Holy=20 Liturgy).

On the eve of major feasts and Sundays, the All-Night = Vigil=20 service is conducted, which combines Vespers, Matins and the First Hour. = The=20 All-Night Vigil received its name from the fact that among early = Christians, and=20 in some monasteries today, the service began at sunset and continued = through the=20 course of the entire night, until sunrise.

In addition to the daily cycle of divine = services, there=20 are weekly and annual cycles. Concerning the weekly or = seven-day=20 cycle, on Sunday, the Church remembers and glorifies the Resurrection of = Christ.=20 On Monday, the holy angels, the closest servants of God, are celebrated. = The=20 Church dedicates every Tuesday to the honor of St. John the Baptist, the = greatest of the prophets and righteous one of the Old Testament, and his = memory=20 is also honored on the Church calendar several times during the year. On = Wednesday, Christ's betrayal by Judas is remembered, for which reason = Wednesday=20 is a fast day, and services are centered around the Cross of the Lord. = On=20 Thursday, the Holy Apostles and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker are = glorified. On=20 Friday, the Church remembers the Saviour=92s death on the Cross, for = which reason=20 Friday is also kept as a fast day, and services (as on Wednesday) honor = the=20 Cross of the Lord. On Saturday, the Mother of God is glorified (just as = she is=20 also glorified on every other day), along with the "forefathers, = prophets,=20 Apostles, martyrs, monastics, righteous and all the saints" who have = attained=20 salvation. Also remembered on Saturday are all the faithful departed who = reposed=20 in the true faith and in the hope of resurrection and eternal life.

The Church year begins on the first of September, = according to=20 the Julian (Old Style) calendar that was in use at the time of Christ, = and it is=20 dominated by twelve great feasts. These feasts do not include the = radiant feast=20 of the Resurrection of Christ, Pascha, which is placed outside them in a = class=20 by itself. Ever since the time of the early Church, Pascha has been the = Feast of=20 Feasts and has stood alone in its magnificence.

From the first century of Christianity, the custom = was=20 established of celebrating Pascha after the Jewish Passover, according = to the=20 stipulation of the Seventh Apostolic Canon. This practice was confirmed = at the=20 First Ecumenical Council, which decreed that the date of Pascha must = fall after=20 the vernal equinox, on the first Sunday after the equinoxal new moon, = and always=20 after the Jewish celebration of Passover. This reckoning is based on the = sequence of events in the New Testament. The Jewish Passover took place = on a=20 Friday and a Saturday. On Friday, Nisan 14, Christ was crucified. On = Saturday He=20 was in the tomb, and early in the morning on the first day of the week, = Nisan=20 16, He arose. Also, the New Testament Pascha is the replacement of the = sacrifice=20 of the lamb of the Old Testament by the redemptive sacrifice of Christ. = As a=20 result, the latter must never precede the sacrifice of the Jewish lamb. = The=20 Orthodox Church still adheres to all three of the requirements handed = down by=20 the First Ecumenical Council, whereas the Western Churches keep only the = first=20 two. In the Orthodox Church, Pascha occurs no earlier than March 22 on = the=20 Julian calendar (or April 4 on the new style or civil calendar), and no = later=20 than April 25 on the Julian calendar (May 8 on the civil calendar).

Pascha was also the principal feast on the Church = calendar in=20 the pre-schism West =97 that is, before 1054, although in its = post-schism period,=20 the West gradually came to replace it with the feast of the Lord's = Nativity.=20 Given the fact that this "feast" of Christmas in the West has become for = the=20 most part one of commerce and entertainment, it is blasphemous with = regard to=20 the sacred event of Christ's Nativity.

Of the twelve great feasts observed throughout the = Church's=20 calendar year, eight are devoted to Jesus Christ and four to the = Theot=F3kos.=20 There are also other feasts that honor great saints and the angels. All = of these=20 feasts are divided into those which are immovable and movable. Immovable = feasts=20 occur every year on the same calendar date of the months, while movable = feasts,=20 which occur on the sane day of the week, nay fall on various dates of a = month=20 due to their relationship with the celebration of Pascha.

There are also occasional offices, or services = intended for=20 special events such as Baptism, Monastic Profession, Marriage, Burial of = the=20 Dead, Consecration of a Church, and Royal Coronation. Additionally, = there are a=20 number of lesser blessings used by the Church.

A Russian hermit explains that it was in the = catacombs of the=20 first three centuries of Christianity that Orthodoxy's Divine Liturgy = and other=20 services were worked out in an atmosphere of constant expectation of = death.=20 Orthodoxy's divine services are celebrated in a form little changed = since that=20 time.

The first Liturgy was composed under the inspiration = of the=20 Holy Spirit by the Holy Apostle James, the Brother of the Lord, when he = was the=20 first bishop of the Church of Jerusalem. (This Liturgy is still = celebrated once=20 a year on his feast day, and it lasts about five hours). Later, out of=20 condescension toward the weakness of men, Saints Basil the Great and = John=20 Chrysostom shortened this service. Thus, there are three main Orthodox=20 Liturgies: St. John Chrysostom=92s (forth century), St. = Basil's (third=20 century), and that of St. James, the Brother of the Lord (first = century).

The Orthodox Liturgy was never the exclusive domain = of the=20 clergy and learned, such as the Mass was in the medieval West =97 a = drama, as it=20 were, enacted by the priests for the people. The Liturgy was instead=20 popular =97 that is, it was always the common possession of the = whole=20 Orthodox Christian people, and something which priests perform = together=20 with the laity. For this reason, among the Orthodox, one would never = hear the=20 expression so common in the West: to hear Mass. The idea of "hearing" a = service=20 came about in the medieval West, when services were performed in Latin, = a=20 language not understood by the people. Roman Catholics would attend = church to=20 adore the "host" at elevation, but they otherwise treated the church = service as=20 an occasion to recite private prayers and the rosary. This development = did not=20 take place in the East, however, for the Orthodox Liturgy never ceased = to be the=20 common act performed by the priest and people conjointly. Orthodox = Christians=20 come to church not to say private prayers (which should be done in = private =97 cf.=20 Mt 6:6), but to pray the public prayers of the Liturgy, and to become = actual=20 partakers of the rite of the Liturgy. As a Western observer of Orthodoxy = notes=20 in this regard:

The normal Orthodox lay worshiper, through = familiarity from=20 earliest childhood, is entirely at home in church, thoroughly conversant = with=20 the audible parts of the Holy Liturgy, and takes part with unconscious = and=20 unstudied ease in the action of the rite, to an extent only shared by = the=20 hyper-devout and ecclesiastically minded in the West [Austin Oakley, = The=20 Orthodox Liturgy, p. 12].

It should be noted that the author of the textbook = occasionally=20 uses the word Mass interchangeably with Liturgy when = referring to=20 the Orthodox Church's central worship service, something which is done = on=20 occasion by Western writers. The word Mass is derived from the = dismissal=20 rite of the Roman Catholic Mass: Ite, missa est (contio), meaning = Go, (the meeting) is dismissed. Among Orthodox, one never = hears=20 this word used for the Liturgy.

Throughout Orthodoxy's darkest days, during the long = domination=20 by the Turks and the suppression at the hands of the Mongols, during the = bloodbaths from the forced propagation of Uniatism by the Vatican, and = during=20 the attempted extermination of the Church by the Communists, Orthodox = Christians=20 have always turned to the Holy Liturgy for new hope and inspiration. It = is not=20 in vain that they have turned to it.

* * * * *

Orthodoxy is well aware of the importance of music. = When Christ=20 served His last Paschal service, He gave it new meaning, that of the = first=20 Christian Eucharist, after which He and the Apostles sang a hymn (Mt = 26:30).=20 Thus singing was established in the Christian Church, its liturgical use = having=20 been blessed through the example of the Creator Himself.

The Holy Fathers taught that music is the language = closest to=20 the soul, and that it is through music that the soul, upon departing = this life,=20 will first apprehend Heaven. There is great power in the beauty of = music, in its=20 ability to convey meaning in a way that simple speech cannot. The = spiritual life=20 of the Church is therefore very much bound up with its music as = prayer.

Just as they have been since the days of the early = Church,=20 virtually all of Orthodoxy's services employ music. From the beginning = to end,=20 no sound is heard, other than a sermon, that is not some form of music. = Church=20 singing is usually done by the celebrant and a choir, although even when = a=20 priest and a single reader are without a choir and congregation, the = services=20 are still sung and never spoken. In some places, the congregation sings = as well,=20 at least the Lord's Prayer and Creed, if not the entire service.

When listening to music from the different Orthodox = national=20 traditions, one finds that no two sound anything alike (save in those = cases in=20 which they directly borrowed from each other), yet as in iconography, = there is=20 always a contrition-evoking sobriety and spiritual serenity which = completely=20 separates worshipers from the world. This quality is a distinguishing=20 characteristic of Orthodox music, regardless of the nationality. = Greek-speaking=20 Orthodox employ the ancient Byzantine plain chant with its eight tones = in their=20 ecclesiastical music. The same plain-chant, introduced into the Slavic = lands by=20 Byzantine missionaries, underwent extensive modification among the Slavs = throughout the centuries so that the Slavonic Churches each developed = their own=20 tradition and style of church music. Of these traditions, the Russian is = particularly striking to Western ears, and many consider its music to be = the=20 finest in all Christendom.

Orthodoxy's services are sung a cappella, without = musical=20 instruments. Although the organ has been introduced in modernist Greek = parishes=20 beginning in 1926, this practice takes place in imitation of Western = Christians=20 and at the behest of the ecumenical movement, the latter of which is = forming the=20 one-world religion of the antichrist. Church canons forbid the use of = musical=20 instruments because they introduce something theatrical into the sacred = realm,=20 and because they are a distracting element that takes away from the = meditative=20 atmosphere created by traditional Orthodox chants and thus takes away = from=20 worship. Dr. Constantine Cavarnos explains that the use of the organ = constitutes=20 an innovation which the Holy Fathers explicitly prohibited and which is = contrary=20 to the ordinances of the first Christians. He also explains that:

Attentive study of the New Testament absolutely = convinces us=20 that the Apostolic Church did not use musical instruments. The Fathers, = faithful=20 guardians and unfailing interpreters of Tradition, explicitly excluded = the use=20 of musical instruments in the execution of ecclesiastical hymns, and = also the=20 accompaniment of hymnody with instruments, as incompatible with the = sober,=20 hieratic, spiritual character of the Christian religion, because they = bring to=20 mind the fallen world and the things of the world =97 parties, laughter, = disorderly shouting, and the like.... It is worth noting that the = instrument=20 from which the organ originated was known to the Byzantines, but they = used it in=20 the Hippodrome and the palace, never in church [Orthodox Tradition = and=20 Modernism, p. 24].

Orthodox Christians feel a need to worship God with = what He has=20 given them =97 their mouths and voices. It is therefore seen as = inappropriate to=20 worship God with something man-made, something outside themselves, such = as=20 musical instruments.

Lastly, the addition of musical instruments causes = worshipers=20 to become preoccupied with the music itself. While music is important, = it is of=20 secondary importance to the words of the hymns and their meaning. = Metropolitan=20 Laurus of Jordanville addresses the matter of the great importance of = the=20 content of the Church's hymns. He states:

How many great dogmatic truths are unfolded for us = with our=20 verses and canons in lofty poetical images! Particularly the so-called = Triadica=20 (Trinitarian hymns), in a fresh and graphic way inform us about the = great truth=20 of the "Trinity in Unity" =97 the Three-in-One Divine Being. The = Theotokia, among=20 with the Dogmatic Theotokia especially, expound for us concerning the = great=20 mystery of the Incarnation of the Son of God from the unwedded and most = pure=20 Virgin Mary, concerning the perpetually confessed dogma of the Church = regarding=20 the ever-virginity of the unwedded Theotokos. For one who can read and=20 investigate thoroughly, this is a full course of dogmatic theology = revealing to=20 us all the dogmatic teaching of the Church: about God, one in essence = and three=20 in Persons; about God as the Creator of the world and mankind; about the = Provider and Saviour of man; about the Son of God as Redeemer; about the = Holy=20 Spirit as Sanctifier; about the Church as the storehouse of the grace of = the=20 Holy Spirit.... And finally, we have the last destiny of the world and = man =97 the=20 Second Coming of Christ, the Last Judgment, the eternal suffering of = sinners and=20 the eternal blessedness of the righteous.

What plentiful material our divine service books give = us in the=20 area of moral theology =97 the teaching concerning Christian morality! = In this=20 area we find inexhaustible examples from the lives of the God-pleasing = saints.=20 And above all, we find the teaching on prayer in the innumerable images = of the=20 most diversified prayers for all occasions of life, answering all the = varied=20 needs of the human being. We have a full picture of the war continually = waged in=20 man's soul between virtue and sin, the lofty examples of virtues, the = censure of=20 sin, the graphic examples of virtuous and depraved life gathered from = Sacred=20 Scripture, the history of the Church, and the lives of the saints. In = this=20 sphere, especially rich material is provided by the Lenten Triodion with = its=20 incomparable and exalted penitential Canon of St. Andrew of Crete, and = also by=20 the penitential and tender verses of the Octoechos ["The Significance of = the=20 Practical Study of Liturgics," Orthodox Life, vol. 45, no. 4, = 1995, pp.=20 43-44].

Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky expresses the same = ideas in=20 his remarks that:

The catholic consciousness of the Church, where it = concerns the=20 teaching of faith, is also expressed in the Orthodox divine services = which have=20 been handed down to us by the Ecumenical Church. By entering deeply into = the=20 content of the divine service books we make ourselves firmer in the = dogmatic=20 teaching of the Orthodox Church.

The content of the Orthodox divine services is the = culminating=20 expression of the teaching of the Holy Apostles and Fathers of the = Church, both=20 in the sphere of dogma and of morals. This is splendidly expressed in = the hymn=20 (or kontakion) which is sung on the day of the commemoration of the Holy = Fathers=20 of the Ecumenical Councils: "The preaching of the Apostles and the = dogmas of the=20 Fathers have imprinted upon the Church a single faith which, bearing the = garment=20 of truth woven of the theology from above, rightly dispenseth and = glorifieth the=20 great mystery of piety." [Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, pp. = 38-39].

Orthodox Christianity accommodated itself to local = cultures and=20 allowed services in languages native to a region or country: Arabic in = Damascus,=20 Japanese in Tokyo, Finish in Helsinki, and native languages throughout = Africa.=20 Orthodox missionaries, from the time of Saints Cyril and Methodius in = the ninth=20 century, to Saints Nicholas Kassatkin and Innocent of Alaska in the = nineteenth=20 century, have always made it one of their first tasks to translate = Orthodox=20 service books into the local language. As Archimandrite Luke of = Jordanville goes=20 on to add in this regard:

Because the Church used the vernacular and not a = universal and=20 sometimes incomprehensible language (Latin), the people found it easier = to=20 identify with Church life as something close to their daily lives. The = Church=20 took part in and guided the intellectual life of the people. The people = acquired=20 literacy through the efforts of the Church in their own language = ["Nationalism,=20 Russia, and the Restoration of the Patriarchate," Orthodox Life, = vol. 51,=20 no. 6, p. 25].

Of course, there are partial exceptions to the use of = native=20 languages. The Slavonic Churches still employ the ninth-century = translations in=20 Old Church Slavonic, and the Greek-speaking Churches use the Greek of = the New=20 Testament and Byzantine periods. In either case, though, the similarity = between=20 the liturgical language and the spoken language allows the congregation = to=20 understand the service.

In speaking of liturgical languages, it is of = interest to pause=20 on Slavonic, known to modern scholars as Old Church Slavonic. This = language is=20 based on an Eastern Slavic language of which the modern Slavic languages = are=20 recensions, and it came to be the tongue of Slavic Christianity. It was = created=20 originally about the middle of the ninth century as a literary language = by two=20 missionary brothers from Thessalonica, Saints Cyril and Methodius, for = the=20 purpose of bringing Christianity to the Slavs in a language = understandable to=20 them. In the Middle Ages, this language became, after Greek and Latin, = the third=20 international language of Europe, and it developed in the course of = subsequent=20 centuries in different parts of the Slavic world. To this day, Orthodox = Churches=20 in Russia, the Ukraine, Byelorussia, Carpatho-Russia, Serbia, Bulgaria,=20 Macedonia and Moldavia (Moldava) still employ the same Slavonic = vernacular of=20 the Balkan Slavs for their Liturgies, and this language is used = extensively in=20 new world parishes as well.

The ancient worship of the Christian Church has = always involved=20 standing as it was unthinkable to the Holy Fathers that one should sit = in the=20 presence of Christ. As it is considered impious, arrogant and improper = to sit=20 before God during divine services, a traditional Orthodox church has no = pews,=20 but only benches around the periphery of the church for the infirm and = aged. A=20 Greek hierarch points out that pews and sitting during services are a = Protestant=20 innovation, the natural consequence of services that do not entail a = meeting of=20 the heavenly with the earthly, but the recitation of a sermon = accompanied by=20 hymns. The hierarch also notes that the separation of worship from a = sense of=20 participation in the Mysteries of God, and its reduction to viewing and=20 listening to a performance by a preacher and choir, are incompatible = with an=20 Orthodox understanding of worship. So is sitting during the services.=20 Unfortunately, the introduction of pews in Orthodox worship, something = newer=20 than electricity, is a feature of modernistic Orthodox Churches in = America and=20 in some places in Europe. Obviously, though, pews violate the = traditional=20 architectural concepts and spiritual practices of the Orthodox Church. = For this=20 reason, in most places the Orthodox still maintain the ancient practice = of=20 standing throughout most of the services.

Orthodox clergy have greater freedom and informality = than that=20 seen outside Orthodoxy, for ceremonial movements are much more natural = and less=20 stylized than in the West, where liturgical gestures are prescribed with = extreme=20 detail. People feel at home in an Orthodox church. They are not made to = feel as=20 troops on parade, neatly arranged in rows of pews where they cannot move = about=20 freely, but they feel as children in their Father's house. While = Orthodox=20 worship has been called otherworldly, it could also be called = home-like,=20 for it is a family affair. The textbook for this course adds: "Yet = behind this=20 homeliness and informality there lies a deep sense of mystery." Anyone = who has=20 attended an Orthodox Liturgy would have to concur.

Orthodox worship has an unhurried and timeless = quality about=20 it, something which is brought about in part by the repetition of = ectenias=20 (litanies), which appear several times, either in longer or shorter = form, in all=20 the services. In these, the deacon (or the priest in his absence) = mentions the=20 various needs of the Church and the world, and the choir responds to = each=20 petition with Gospodi pomilui or Kyrie eleison (Lord, = have=20 mercy, in Old Slavonic and Greek respectively).

Some Westerners have the notion that an Orthodox = service is of=20 an intolerable length. Orthodox services do tend to be longer than their = counterparts among Western Christians, and services among the Russians = last=20 longer than those among the Greeks. A Saturday night Vigil service at a = typical=20 Russian parish of the emigration would ordinarily last about two hours. = Of=20 course, services at monasteries are more extended, and the same Vigil = service at=20 the Holy Trinity Monastery of the Russian Church in Exile in upstate New = York=20 takes from three to four hours to celebrate, while a Sunday or feast day = Liturgy=20 may run about two-and-a-half to three hours. The services of Great Lent = are=20 considerably longer, however, and there have been services on great = feast days=20 on Mount Athos that have gone on for twelve to fifteen hours without a=20 break.

One characteristic apparent to any Western observer = is that the=20 Orthodox make the sign of the Cross with much greater frequency than it = is done=20 in the West. In addition to those occasions when all the faithful cross=20 themselves, there are times when different worshipers cross themselves, = each=20 doing it when he or she is moved to do so.

Archpriest D. Sokolof explains that in general = appearance, most=20 Orthodox churches are built in an oblong shape, in imitation of a ship, = or as=20 Archpriest Seraphim Slobodskoy adds, to call to mind the image of Noah's = ark,=20 which is compared to the Church. A ship under the direction of a good = helmsman=20 carries people through stormy seas into a peaceful harbor. In the same = way, the=20 Church, governed by Christ, carries Christians through the turbulent sea = of life=20 and saves them from drowning in the deep waters of sin, and it brings = them into=20 the Kingdom of Heaven, "where there is neither sorrow nor sighing." (In = the=20 writings of the Holy Fathers, one often finds the comparison of the = Church in=20 the world with a ship on the sea). Some churches are also designed in = the form=20 of a Cross to signify that they are sacred to Him Who was crucified for = the=20 human race, or else they are built more or less square in plan. = Occasionally a=20 church is built in a circle, which shows that the Church of Christ is = eternal,=20 without end, and it can even be built in the shape of an octagon, like a = star,=20 to suggest that the Church is like a guiding star which shines into the = world.=20 (As these latter two shapes are inconvenient for the inner arrangement = of the=20 church, they are not often used). Above the wide central space is a = dome, which=20 is an image of Heaven, and it is usually painted with a depiction of = Christ the=20 Pantocrator, the Ruler of the Universe. Archpriest D. Sokolov also = explains that=20 the entrance to an Orthodox church is almost always from the west, with = the=20 church itself facing east, in token that Christian worshipers enter from = the=20 darkness of impiety into the light of truth. (The east is a symbol of = light,=20 good and truth, the priest notes, whereas the West is a symbol of = darkness, evil=20 and error). Orthodox churches do not have the elongated naves and = chancels of=20 Gothic-style cathedrals and churches, nor are they built in the = gymnasium-style=20 architecture or barn-like concrete temples of modernism and emptiness = that have=20 come to dominate Western church architecture in recent decades.

In Russia, the domes of the churches came to assume a = characteristic onion shape. One dome stands for the Head of the Church, = Jesus=20 Christ, while two domes symbolize His two nature: divine and human. = Three domes=20 stand for the three Hypostases of the Godhead, while five represent = Christ and=20 the four Evangelists. When seven domes are present, they represent the = Seven=20 Ecumenical Councils, while nine stand for the nine ranks of angels. = Thirteen=20 domes call to mind Christ and the twelve Apostles, and on some churches = there=20 are even more domes.

Atop each dome is the Cross. In Russia, a three-bar = Cross is=20 generally used. The top bar bears the sign Jesus of Nazareth, King of = the=20 Jews. The lower bar, or footboard (supendaneum in Latin), was = used by=20 the Roman executioners in Christ's time in order to prolong the = suffering and=20 agony of the victim. Without this bar, the weight of the hanging body = would=20 prevent the diaphragm from working, and death from asphyxiation would = result in=20 a matter of minutes. Sacred Tradition teaches that when the Apostle = Andrew=20 preached in southern Russia, he placed a life-size three-bar Cross at = his side.=20 While explaining the Last Judgment, he tilted the footplate to signify = that=20 those on the left side of Christ will go down to hell, while those on = His right=20 side will go to Heaven. It is for this reason that the lower bar of the = Russian=20 Cross sits at an angle.

Archpriest Seraphim Slobodskoy writes in The Law = of God=20 that in the Old Testament, the Lord Himself gave directions through the = Prophet=20 Moses as to how the temple should be set up for divine worship. New = Testament=20 churches were constructed on the basis of the Old Testament temple, = which was=20 separated into three portions: the holy of holies, the sanctuary, and = the=20 courts. These correspond to the three sections of an Orthodox church: = the altar=20 (or sanctuary), the nave (the middle portion), and the narthex = (vestibule). Fr.=20 Seraphim explains that:

As the holy of holies signified then, so now the = altar=20 represents the Kingdom of Heaven. No one could enter the holy of holies = except=20 for the high priest once a year, and only with the blood of a = purification=20 sacrifice. The Kingdom of Heaven, after the fall of man into sin, was = closed to=20 us. The high priest was a prototype of Christ, and his action told the = people=20 that a time would come when Christ, through the shedding of His blood = and=20 suffering on the Cross and Resurrection, would open the Kingdom of = Heaven to=20 all. Therefore, when Christ died on the Cross, the veil of the temple = which=20 closed off the holy of holies was torn in two, and from this moment = Christ=20 opened the gates of the Kingdom of Heaven to all those who with faith = would come=20 to Him [pp. 526-27].

Fr. Seraphim explains that in Old Testament times, no = one but=20 the priest had a right to enter the sanctuary (which, as noted, = corresponds to=20 the nave in an Orthodox church ). In New Testament times, however, all = believing=20 Christians are allowed to stand within Orthodox churches because the = Kingdom=20 of God is closed to none.

While the courts in the Old Testament temple have = their New=20 Testament counterparts in the narthex, this latter division no longer = has any=20 essential significance. In early times, however, it was the place where=20 catechumens stood =97 those who were preparing for the Mystery of = Baptism.

The word altar signifies an elevated place of = sacrifice.=20 In an Orthodox church, the altar (or sanctuary), which is generally = built higher=20 than the other portions of the church, is the holiest place in the = church, and=20 it faces east. It is here that the altar table (or holy = table,=20 or throne, as it is variously called), is located. Upon this = altar table,=20 the bishop or priest celebrates the Mystery of the Holy Eucharist. = Except for=20 special reasons (such as serving at the Liturgy), laymen are not allowed = to go=20 behind the iconostasis into the sanctuary.

Archpriest Alexey Young observes that Orthodox = priests=20 maintain the Church's ancient practice of facing away from the = congregation and=20 toward God. He goes on to note that in spite of many novel and = innovative=20 changes introduced by Rome since the Great Schism, some basic doctrines = and=20 practices common to the pre-schism Universal Church were preserved in = the West,=20 as well as a number of outward forms, until the early 1960s. At that = time, when=20 the Second Vatican Council made radical, de-Christianizing changes, the = Latin=20 Church's "new Mass" began to focus obsessively on the "people of God" = rather=20 than on God Himself. In the "new Mass," Catholic priests turn their = backs on God=20 and face the congregation so as to have a "dialogue." The reformers of = the=20 Second Vatican Council justified this innovation by claiming they were = restoring=20 the ancient practice of the early Church. However, the early Church = never had=20 such a practice. In fact, the practice originates with Martin Luther and = the=20 Protestant Reformation.

The altar table, usually cube-shaped, is in the = center of the=20 sanctuary and stands free from the eastern wall. Upon it are two sets of = vestments: a lower one, which is of white linen, and an upper one, which = is of a=20 more expensive material, usually brocade. It is upon this table that the = King=20 and Master of the Church, Jesus Christ, is mysteriously and invisibly = present in=20 the Holy Eucharist. Only ordained clergy may touch the altar table or = venerate=20 it. Upon it are the Gospel, the Cross, the tabernacle (or ark in which = the Holy=20 Gifts are kept for the communing of the ill), the Communion set, and the = antimins.

This last article, the antimins (or antimension), is = a silk=20 cloth upon which Jesus Christ is depicted being placed in a tomb. A = fragment=20 from the relics of a saint (bone) is sewn into the reverse side, a = practice that=20 dates to the first centuries of Christianity, when the Divine Liturgy = was always=20 celebrated upon the graves of the martyrs. The word antimins = means=20 instead of an altar table, and one is not allowed to = celebrate the=20 Liturgy without an antimins consecrated by a bishop. In order to protect = it, the=20 antimins is folded into another silk cloth called the iliton.

Behind the altar table are the altar Cross and a = seven-branched=20 candelabrum, the altar fans, and the dikiri and the trikiri. The dikiri = holds=20 two candles that represent the two natures of Christ, while the trikiri = holds=20 three candles that represent the three Persons of the Godhead. The = bishop uses=20 the dikiri and trikiri to bless the faithful. The altar fans, metal = circles upon=20 which the Seraphim are depicted, sit atop long wooden handles. In the = early=20 Church, these fans were made of ostrich feathers or leather and were = used to=20 keep insects away from the Holy Gifts. Today they are held by the = deacons over=20 the Gospel book in procession, and also over the Holy Gifts during = consecration.=20 When the deacons wave these fans, it represents the presence of the = heavenly=20 hosts at the Liturgy. Behind these articles, against the eastern wall of = the=20 church, is the bishop's cathedra, or throne.

The northern part of the sanctuary is the area of the = Prothesis=20 (or Preparation), and in it is the table of oblation. At the beginning = of the=20 Liturgy, the priest uses this table to prepare the bread and wine that = are to be=20 used in the Eucharist. The table is also used to store various sacred = vessels,=20 including the chalice.

Separating the sanctuary from the nave is the = iconostasis, a=20 solid wooden or marble screen supporting panel icons. One sometimes = hears that=20 an icon screen was not a feature of early Christian buildings. However, = Eastern=20 Christian worship was modeled on Jewish temple worship at the time of = Christ,=20 and it is likely that the iconostasis had its origin in the wall = separating the=20 congregation from the holy of holies in small rural temples.

Leading into the iconostasis are three doors, the = largest of=20 which are the royal gates, so called because through them passes Jesus = Christ,=20 Who comes invisibly in the Holy Gifts. No one other than clergy is = allowed to=20 pass through these gates, and a curtain behind them is drawn and = withdrawn=20 during the course of the services. The door to the left side of the = iconostasis,=20 the northern door, leads to the area of the Prothesis, while the door on = the=20 right side, the southern door, leads to the Diakonikon, where = traditionally the=20 relics of saints and sacred books were kept, particularly the books of = the=20 Gospels. Today this area serves as a vestry.

The arrangement of icons inside a church is far from=20 accidental, but is done according to a definite theological system so = that a=20 church building makes up one great icon of the Kingdom of God. The = numerous=20 icons assist the faithful in that they function as a meeting point = between=20 Heaven and earth. As each local congregation of Christians prays and = worships,=20 it is surrounded by images of Christ, the angels and the saints, and = these=20 remind Christians that Christ and all the hosts of Heaven are invisibly = and=20 unceasingly present at the Liturgy.

Usually the Annunciation and the four Evangelists are = on the=20 royal gates. Above them is an icon of the Mystical Supper since the = faithful=20 stand before them when partaking of Holy Communion. To the right of the = royal=20 gates, there is always an icon of the Saviour, and traditionally men = stand on=20 this side of the church. To the left of the same gates is an icon of the = Mother=20 of God, and traditionally this is the side of the church where women = stand.

The ancient tradition of separating men and women in = public=20 worship helps lessen distraction in prayer and serves as a hedge against = temptation. The practice is almost certainly of Apostolic origin, and it = derives=20 from the separation of men and women in the Jewish temple. It is not = widely=20 known today that the practice was a universal Christian custom until the = Protestant Reformation, and even afterwards it survived among some = Protestant=20 groups until the nineteenth century. The practice survives to this day = among the=20 Orthodox Jews, Muslims, and Orthodox Christians in traditionally = Orthodox=20 countries, although in other places, revolutionary ways prevailed, and = the=20 practice is not always observed today.

The southern door, which is to the right of the icon = of the=20 Saviour, and the northern door to the left of the icon of the Theotokos, = generally have the Archangels Michael and Gabriel depicted on them.=20 Occasionally, however, icons of the first deacons, Saints Philip and = Stephen,=20 are on them, or else the high priest Aaron and the Prophet Moses. Since = the=20 deacons frequently pass through these doors, they are sometimes called = the=20 deacon's doors.

On the far ends of the deacon's doors are icons of = especially=20 revered saints. The first icon to the right is almost always the icon of = the=20 saint or feast to whom the church building is dedicated. If the = iconostasis is=20 built with more than three rows of icons, the second row usually has = icons of=20 the twelve great feasts, while the third row has the Apostles, and the = forth row=20 the prophets. On top of the iconostasis is the Cross, upon which the = crucified=20 Lord is depicted.

In addition to the icons on the iconostasis, icons = are also on=20 the walls and in shrines, and on stands where they can be venerated. On = entering=20 the church proper, having crossed oneself when approaching the building, = one=20 normally reverences the central icon in the narthex with three bows = (bending and=20 touching the floor with the right hand), or with three prostrations = (falling to=20 the knees and bending the head almost to the ground). One makes the bows = or=20 prostrations twice before kissing the icon and lighting a candle near = it, after=20 which one makes another bow or prostration.

** ** **

Here ends the correspondence course on the Eastern = Orthodox=20 Christian Church, which is the depository of Apostolic Christian Truth. = As this=20 course makes abundantly clear, this ancient Church has an uncompromising = adherence to the original, unadulterated Christian faith and holds an = unbroken,=20 unchanged transmission of Christ's teaching since Apostolic times. Of = this=20 priceless treasure, Holy Orthodoxy, the great miracle-worker St. John of = Kronstadt writes:

In the Church are all our sweetest hopes and = expectations, our=20 peace, our joy, together with cleansing and sanctification. It is there = that the=20 truth of the future resurrection, of the victory over death, is so often = announced. Who that loves life would not love the Church with all his = heart!=20 Everything that is best, most exalted, most precious, holy and wise is = found in=20 the Church. In the Church is the ideal of mankind; the Church is Heaven = upon=20 earth [My Life in Christ].

Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos goes on to = state:

The greatest gift of grace which we have is that we = belong to=20 the Church. The greatest gift is that we are in this great Family. We = should=20 value this gift, and we should feel very deeply moved and struggle to = remain in=20 the Church, experiencing its sanctifying grace and showing by our lives = that we=20 are in its place of redemption and sanctification. Thus we shall also = have the=20 greatest gift of the "blessed ending," when we are granted to lie asleep = "in the=20 midst of the Church" [The Mind of the Orthodox Church, p.=20 37].

Epilogue.

Although it is not for us to know the = times or the=20 seasons, end-times prophecies abound, and their astonishing messages = clearly=20 show that we are at the very threshold of the end of the ages. The = Apostle Paul,=20 for example, writes that in the last days, people shall become:

=85lovers of their own selves, covetous, boasters, = proud,=20 blasphemers, disobedient to parents, unthankful, unholy, without natural = affection, truce-breakers, false accusers, without self-control, fierce, = despisers of those who are good, traitors, headstrong, haughty, lovers = of=20 pleasures more than lovers of God, having a form of godliness but = denying the=20 power thereof (2 Tim 3:2-5).

The Greek Elder Philotheos Zervakos (+1980) = additionally states=20 that:

Concerning the end of the age, [Christ] did not set = the date=20 precisely; He said only: "When you see wars, earthquakes, floods, = disbelief,=20 impiety, lawlessness, lack of love, false prophets, false messiahs and=20 deceivers, then consider that the end is approaching." In an ancient = book it was=20 written that when the disciples asked the Teacher when these things = would happen=20 and He told them the above, He also told them that when men became women = and the=20 women men, then the end would take place. And [St. John] Chrysostom said = that=20 the Lord also said this, that the Second Coming will take place when = women are=20 lacking in modesty [Paternal Counsels, vol. 1, p. 59].

One of the most striking prophecies for our times is = that given=20 by a hermit of Mount Athos, St. Nilus the Myrrhstreaming (+1651). In it, = the=20 saint speaks in part of the tremendous technological advances hundreds = of years=20 before they were discovered. He also gives the following disheartening = picture,=20 one modern people can readily recognize because of its incredible = accuracy:

... Toward the middle of the twentieth century, the = people of=20 that time will become unrecognizable. When the time for the advent of = the=20 antichrist approaches, people's minds will grow cloudy from carnal = passions, and=20 dishonor and lawlessness will grow stronger. Then the world will become=20 unrecognizable. People's appearances will change, and it will be = impossible to=20 distinguish men from women due to their shamelessness in dress and style = of=20 hair. These people will be cruel and will be like wild animals because = of the=20 temptations of the antichrist. There will be no respect for parents and = elders,=20 love will disappear, and Christian pastors, bishops and priests will = become vain=20 men, completely failing to distinguish the right-hand way from the left. = At that=20 time the morals and traditions of Christians and of the Church will = change.=20 Falsehood and greed will attain great proportions, and woe to those who = pile up=20 treasures. Lust, adultery, homosexuality, secret deeds and murder will = rule in=20 society.

At that future time, due to the power of such great = crimes and=20 licentiousness, people will be deprived of the grace of the Holy Spirit = which=20 they received in Holy Baptism, and equally of remorse. The Churches of = God will=20 be deprived of God-fearing and pious pastors, and woe to the Christians=20 remaining in the world at that time; they will completely lose their = faith=20 because they will lack the opportunity of seeing the light of knowledge = from=20 anyone at all. Then they will separate themselves out of the world in = holy=20 refuges in search of lightening of their spiritual sufferings, but = everywhere=20 they will meet obstacles and constraints. And all this will result from = the fact=20 that the antichrist wants to be lord over everything and become the = ruler of the=20 whole universe, and he will produce miracles and fantastic signs. He = will also=20 give depraved wisdom to an unhappy man so that he will discover a way by = which=20 one man can carry on a conversation with another from one end of the = earth to=20 the other. At that time men will also fly through the air like birds and = descend=20 to the bottom of the sea like fish. And when they have achieved all = this, these=20 unhappy people will spend their lives in comfort without knowing, poor = souls,=20 that it is the deceit of the antichrist. And, the impious one =97 he = will so=20 complete science with vanity that it will go off the right path and lead = people=20 to lose faith in the existence of God in three Hypostases....

In America's own brand of enforced atheism, people = have been=20 reduced to a chance collection of molecules, and the time has come when=20 absolutes are conditioned by an elite. This grim situation is one = manifestation=20 of the barbarism of modernity, but there are others: the near-universal = apostasy=20 from Christianity; the proliferation of false teachers and deceivers; = the growth=20 of a superficial, pseudo-Christianity; the hatred of children for = parents; the=20 insubordination to authority and a massive growth of lawlessness and = other=20 disorders; the growing cold of human love; the multiplication of people = in high=20 places who would like to see all religious freedoms removed; and many = other=20 symptoms as well.

In view of these developments, even secular = commentators of the=20 world now speak of a "quickening" process. One of them, the secular = philosopher=20 Jos=E9 Ortega y Gasset writes that "before long will be heard throughout = the=20 planet a formidable cry, rising like the howling of innumerable dogs to = the=20 stars, asking for someone or something to take command." The stage has = been set=20 for the one-world government of the antichrist, the preparations for = which have=20 already begun through technological manipulation. The door is already = open to=20 the nightmarish world of the future described in the final book of New = Testament=20 Scriptures, and the specter of that cataclysm now haunts the entire = world. In=20 the warning of the twentieth-century prophet, Elder Ignatii of Harbin,=20 Manchuria, "What began in Russia will end in America."

In view of the pre-apocalyptic times in which we are = currently=20 living, this course must conclude on the sad note of some observations = made by=20 the nineteenth-century Father, St. Ignatii Brianchaninov, who tells = us:

One may recognize the work of the Orthodox faith as = approaching=20 its definite conclusion.... Do not expect from anyone the restoration of = Christianity. The vessels of the Holy Spirit have definitely dried up=20 everywhere, even in the monasteries, those treasuries of piety and = grace.... The=20 merciful long-suffering of God extends and delays the final end for the = small=20 remnant of those who are being saved, while those who are becoming = corrupt=20 attain the fullness of corruption.

Even so, come, Lord Jesus (Apoc. 22:20).